Battery structures, self-organizing structures and related methods

• US 20030099884A1
• Filed: 07/26/2002
• Published: 05/29/2003
• Est. Priority Date: 07/27/2001
• Status: Active Grant

• Current Assignee: A123 Systems Incorporated, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
• Original Assignee: A123 Systems Incorporated
• Inventors: Moorehead, William Douglas, Loxley, Andrew, Riley, Gilbert N. Jr., Holman, Richard K., Viola, Michael S., Chiang, Yet Ming, Gozdz, Antoni S.
• Granted Patent: US 7,579,112 B2
• Time in Patent Office: Days
• US Class Current: 429/233
• CPC Class Codes: B33Y 80/00 Products made by additive manufacturing
• CPC Class Codes: G02F 1/1524 Transition metal compounds
• CPC Class Codes: G02F 2001/1555 Counter electrode
• CPC Class Codes: H01G 11/02 using combined reduction-oxidation reactions, e.g. redox arrangement or solion
• CPC Class Codes: H01G 11/06 with one of the electrodes allowing ions to be reversibly doped thereinto, e.g. lithium ion capacitors [LIC]
• CPC Class Codes: H01G 11/24 characterised by structural features of the materials making up or comprised in the electrodes, e.g. form, surface area or porosity; characterised by the structural features of powders or particles used therefor
• CPC Class Codes: H01G 11/26 characterised by their structure, e.g. multi-layered, porosity or surface features
• CPC Class Codes: H01G 11/28 arranged or disposed on a current collector; Layers or phases between electrodes and current collectors, e.g. adhesives
• CPC Class Codes: H01G 11/56 Solid electrolytes, e.g. gels; Additives therein
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 10/0436 Small-sized flat cells or batteries for portable equipment
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 10/0472 Vertically superposed cells with vertically disposed plates
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 10/052 Li-accumulators
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 10/0525 Rocking-chair batteries, i.e. batteries with lithium insertion or intercalation in both electrodes; Lithium-ion batteries
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 10/0565 Polymeric materials, e.g. gel-type or solid-type
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 10/058 Construction or manufacture
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 2004/021 Physical characteristics, e.g. porosity, surface area
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 2004/025 with shapes other than plane or cylindrical
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 4/808 Foamed, spongy materials
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 6/18 with solid electrolyte
• CPC Class Codes: H01M 6/40 Printed batteries , e.g. thin film batteries
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 60/10 : Energy storage using batteries
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 60/13 : Energy storage using capacitors
• CPC Class Codes: Y02P 70/50 : Manufacturing or production processes characterised by the final manufactured product
• CPC Class Codes: Y10T 29/49002 : Electrical device making
• CPC Class Codes: Y10T 29/49108 : Electric battery cell making
• CPC Class Codes: Y10T 29/49115 : including coating or impregnating
• CPC Class Codes: Y10T 29/49224 : with coating

Abstract

An energy storage device includes a first electrode comprising a first material and a second electrode comprising a second material, at least a portion of the first and second materials forming an interpenetrating network when dispersed in an electrolyte, the electrolyte, the first material and the second material are selected so that the first and second materials exert a repelling force on each other when combined. An electrochemical device, includes a first electrode in electrical communication with a first current collector; a second electrode in electrical communication with a second current collector; and an ionically conductive medium in ionic contact with said first and second electrodes, wherein at least a portion of the first and second electrodes form an interpenetrating network and wherein at least one of the first and second electrodes comprises an electrode structure providing two or more pathways to its current collector.

Claims

1. An electrochemical device, comprising:

a first electrode in electrical communication with a first current collector;

a second electrode in electrical communication with a second current collector; and

an ionically conductive medium in ionic contact with said first and second electrodes,

wherein at least a portion of said first and second electrodes form an interpenetrating network and wherein at least one of said first and second electrodes comprises an electrode structure providing two or more pathways to its current collector.

6. The device of claim 1, wherein both electrodes comprise and electrode structure providing two or more pathways to its current collector.

7. The device of claim 1 or 6, wherein at least one of said first and second electrodes comprises an electrode structure having a branching structure wherein the cross-sectional area of electrode increases as one approaches the current collector.

8. The device of claim 1, wherein the first and second electrodes are interlocking.

9. The device of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second electrodes comprises sintered particles.

10. The device of claim 9, wherein the sintered particles form a porous sintered body.

11. The device of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second electrodes comprises an open-celled foam or sponge.

12. The device of claim 1, wherein the first and second electrodes are comprised of particles, and the particles of the first and second electrodes exert a repelling force on one another when combined with the ionically conductive medium.

13. The device of claim 12, wherein the particles of the first electrode are self-attractive in the ionically conductive medium.

14. The device of claim 12, wherein the particles of the second electrode are self-attractive in the ionically conductive medium.

15. The device of claim 1, wherein the electrolyte has an ionic conductivity of less than 10⁻

4 S/cm.

16. The device of claim 1, wherein the device is an energy storage device.

17. The device of claim 16, wherein the first electrode comprises a lithium intercalating material.

18. The device of claim 17, wherein the second electrode comprises a lithium intercalating material.

19. The article of claim 18, wherein the medium is selected to facilitate diffusion of lithium ions between the first and second components.

20. The article of claim 19, wherein the medium is at least one of poly(ethylene oxide), poly(propylene oxide), poly(styrene), poly(imide), poly(amine), poly(acrylonitrile), poly(vinylidene fluoride), methoxyethyoxyethoxy phosphazine, diiodomethane, 1,3-diiodopropane, N,N-dimethylformamide, dimethylpropylene urea, ethylene carbonate, diethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, a block copolymer lithium electrolyte doped with a lithium salt, glass with at least one of LiI, LiF, LiCl, Li₂O—

B₂O₃—

Bi₂O₃, Li₂O—

B₂O₃—

P₂O₅ and Li₂O—

B₂O₃—

PbO and a sol or gel of the oxides or hydroxides of Si, B, P, Ti, Zr, Pb, or Bi.

21. The article of claim 17, wherein the first electronically-connected particle comprise at least one of LiCoO₂ and, LiCoO₂ doped with Mg, LiNiO₂, or LiMn₂O₄, LiMnO₂, LiMnO₂ doped with Al, LiFePO₄, LiFePO₄ doped with one or more of Mg, Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, or W, Li₂Fe₂(SO₄)₃, V₂O₅, V₆O₁₁, C, amorphous carbon, graphite, mesocarbon microbeads, Li, LiAl, Li₉Al₄, Li₃Al, Zn, LiZn, Ag, LiAg, Li₁₀Ag₃, B, Li₅B₄, Li₇B₆, Ge, Si, Li₁₂Si₇, Li₂₁Si₈, Li₁₃Si₄, Li₂₁Si₅, Sn, Li₅Sn₂, Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂, Li₂₂Sn₅, Sb, Li₂Sb, Li₃Sb, Bi, LiBi, Li₃Bi, SnO₂, SnO, MnO, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₃O₄, CoO, NiO, FeO, LiFe₂O₄, TiO₂, LiTi₂O₄, glass with a Sn—

B—

P—

O compound and mesocarbon microbeads coated with at least one of poly(o-methoxyanaline), poly(3-octylthiophene), and poly(vinylidene fluoride).

22. The article of claim 18, wherein the second electronically-connected particle comprises at least one of LiCoO₂ and, LiCoO₂ doped with Mg, LiNiO₂, or LiMn₂O₄, LiMnO₂, LiMnO₂ doped with Al, LiFePO₄, LiFePO₄ doped with one or more of Mg, Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, or W, Li₂Fe₂(SO₄)₃, V₂O₅, V₆O₁₁, C, amorphous carbon, graphite, mesocarbon microbeads, Li, LiAl, Li₉Al₄, Li₃Al, Zn, LiZn, Ag, LiAg, Li₁₀Ag₃, B, Li₅B₄, Li₇B₆, Ge, Si, Li₁₂Si₇, Li₂₁S₈, Li₁₃Si₄, Li₂₁Si₅, Sn, Li₅Sn₂, Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂, Li₂₂Sn₅, Sb, Li₂Sb, Li₃Sb, Bi, LiBi, Li₃Bi, SnO₂, SnO, MnO, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₃O₄, CoO, NiO, FeO, LiFe₂O₄, TiO₂, LiTi₂O₄, glass with a Sn—

B—

P—

O compound and mesocarbon microbeads coated with at least one of poly(o-methoxyanaline), poly(3-octylthiophene), and poly(vinylidene fluoride).

23. The article of claim 1, further comprising an electronically conductive coating on one or both of said first and second current collectors.

24. The device of claim 6, wherein the electrolyte has an ionic conductivity of less than 10⁻

4 S/cm.

25. An electrochemical device comprising:

first and second electrodes separated from one another by an electrolyte, wherein the first and second electrodes approach one another such the diffusion path between electrodes is sufficiently small that the electrolyte has an ionic conductivity of less than 10<sup>−

4</sup> S/cm.

26. The device of claim 25, wherein the device has power density of greater than 300 W/kg and an energy density of greater than 450 W-h/l.

32. The device of claim 25, 26 or 31, wherein the device provides a graded change in electronic conductivity from the location further from the ionically conductive medium is greater than the conductivity at a location closer to the ionically conductive medium.

33. The device of claim 25, 26 or 31, wherein the gradient is linear.

35. The device of claim 25, 26 or 31, wherein the area of cross-sectional lateral area of the electrode further from the ionically conductive medium is greater than that for a cross-sectional lateral area of the electrode closer from the ionically conductive medium.

36. The device of claim 25, 26 or 31, the gradient is due to the compositional variation in the electrode.

43. The device of claim 33, 38,35 or 38, wherein the average thickness of the electrolyte layer between the cathode and the electrode is less than about 10 microns.

44. The device of claim 33, 38, 35 or 38wherein the average thickness of the electrolyte layer between the cathode and the electrode is less than about 5 microns.

45. The device of claim 33, 38, 35 or 38, wherein the electrolyte has an ionic conductivity of less than 10⁻

4 S/cm.

46. The device of claim 33, 38, 35, or 38, wherein the anode and cathode of the device provide a mated surface that is at least 1.25 times the theoretical surface area of a smooth structure.

47. The device of claim 33, 38, 35 or 38, where the anode and cathode of the device provide an interpenetrating network.

27. An electrochemical device wherein the device has power density of greater than 300 W/kg and an energy density of greater than 450 W-h/l for cells having a cell thickness less than ˜

0.1 mm, wherein the cell thickness includes the collectors.

28. An electrochemical device wherein the device has power density of greater than 300 W/kg and an energy density of greater than 550 W-h/l cells having a cell thickness less than ˜

0.1 mm, wherein the cell thickness includes the collectors.

29. An electrochemical device, comprising;

first and second electrodes separated from one another by an ionically conductive medium, wherein said first and second electrodes form an interpenetrating network said interpenetrating network having a structure or composition such that the electronic conductivity at a location further from the ionically conductive medium is greater than the electronic conductivity at a location closer to the ionically conductive medium.

30. An electrochemical device, comprising;

first and second electrodes separated from one another by an ionically conductive medium, wherein said first and second electrodes form an interpenetrating network said interpenetrating network having a structure or composition such that the electronic conductivity of one electrode network at a location further from the opposing current collector is greater than the electronic conductivity of same electrode network at a location closer to the opposing current collector.

31. An electrochemical device, comprising;

first and second electrodes separated from one another by an ionically conductive medium, wherein said first and second electrodes form an interpenetrating network said interpenetrating network having a structure or composition such that the electronic conductivity of each electrode network at a location further from the opposing current collector is greater than the electronic conductivity of each electrode network at a location closer to the opposing current collector.

34. The device of claim 31, wherein the gradient is due to the structural variation in the electrode.

37. An electrochemical device comprising:

a cathode and an anode separated from one another by an electrolyte layer, wherein the electrolyte layer has a thickness of less than one micron at at least one point and the ratio of the anode dimension perpendicular to the electrolyte layer to the electrolyte thickness to the cathode dimension perpendicular to the electrolyte layer is about 20;

1;

20.

38. An electrochemical device comprising:

a cathode and an anode separated from one another by an electrolyte layer, wherein the electrolyte layer has a thickness of less than one micron at at least one point and the ratio of the anode dimension perpendicular to the electrolyte layer to the average electrolyte thickness to the cathode dimension perpendicular to the electrolyte layer is about 10;

1;

10.

39. An electrochemical device comprising:

a cathode and an anode separated from one another by an electrolyte layer, wherein the electrolyte layer has a thickness of less than one micron at at least one point and the ratio of the anode dimension perpendicular to the electrolyte layer to the average electrolyte thickness to the cathode dimension perpendicular to the electrolyte layer is about 5;

1;

5.

40. An electrochemical device wherein the device has power density of greater than 300 W/kg and an energy density of greater than 450 W-h/l.

41. An electrochemical device wherein the device has power density of greater than 300 W/kg and an energy density of greater than 550 W-h/l.

42. An electrochemical device comprising:

first and second electrodes separated from one another by an ionically conductive medium, wherein said first and second electrodes form an interpenetrating network with a power density of greater than 300 W/kg and an energy density of greater than 450 W-h/l.

48. A bipolar article comprising an organized structure comprising a first component, a second component and a third component, wherein the first, second and third components are selected so that the first and third components exert a repelling force on each other when the first, second and third components are combined.

49. The article of claim 48,wherein the organized structure comprises a continuous network.

50. The article of claim 48, wherein the organized structure comprises a layered structure.

51. An article as in claim 48, wherein at least one of the first or second components comprises an electronically-conductive material.

52. The article of claim 48, wherein the first component comprises an electronically-conductive particle that is self-attractive in the medium.

53. The article of claim 48, wherein the second component comprises an electronically-conductive particle that is self-attractive in the medium.

54. The article of claim 48, wherein the medium electronically insulates the first component from the second component.

55. The article of claim 48, wherein the medium is selected to facilitate diffusion of lithium ions between the first and second components.

56. An interpenetrating network comprising a medium, a first network comprising a plurality of first electronically connected particles dispersed in the medium, a second network comprising a plurality of second electronically connected particles dispersed in the medium.

57. An interpenetrating network comprising:

a medium;

a first network comprising a plurality of first electronically-connected particles dispersed in the medium;

a second network comprising a plurality of second electronically-connected particles dispersed in the medium; and

wherein a first Hamaker constant characterizing the interaction between the first and the second component in the medium is negative.

58. The interpenetrating network of claim 57, wherein the medium has an ionic conductivity of less than 10⁻

4 S/cm.

59. The interpenetrating network of claim 57, wherein at least one of said first and second electronically connected particles comprises an electronically conductive coating.

60. The interpenetrating network of claim 59, wherein the coating is ionically conductive.

61. The interpenetrating network of claim 57, wherein the first electronically-connected particle comprise at least one of LiCoO₂ and, LiCoO₂ doped with Mg, LiNiO₂, or LiMn₂O₄, LiMnO₂, LiMnO₂ doped with Al, LiFePO₄, LiFePO₄ doped with one or more of Mg, Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, or W,Li₂Fe₂(SO₄)₃, V₂O₅, V₆O₁₁, C, amorphous carbon, graphite, mesocarbon microbeads, Li, LiAl, Li₉Al₄, Li₃Al, Zn, LiZn, Ag, LiAg, Li₁₀Ag₃, B, Li₅B₄, Li₇B₆, Ge, Si, Li12Si₇, Li₂₁Si₈, Li₁₃Si₄, Li₂₁S₅, Sn, Li₅Sn₂Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂, Li₂₂Sn₅, Sb, Li₂Sb, Li₃Sb, Bi, LiBi, Li₃Bi, SnO₂, SnO, MnO, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₃O₄, CoO, NiO, FeO, LiFe₂O₄, TiO₂, LiTi₂O₄, glass with a Sn—

B—

P—

O compound and mesocarbon microbeads coated with at least one of poly(o-methoxyanaline), poly(3-octylthiophene), and poly(vinylidene fluoride).

62. The interpenetrating network of claim 57, wherein the second electronically-connected particle comprises at least one of LiCoO₂ and, LiCoO₂ doped with Mg, LiNiO₂, or LiMn₂O₄, LiMnO₂, LiMnO₂ doped with Al, LiFePO₄, LiFePO₄ doped with one or more of Mg, Al, Ti, Nb, Ta, or W, Li₂Fe₂(SO₄)₃, V₂O₅, V₆O₁₁, C, amorphous carbon, graphite, mesocarbon microbeads, Li, LiAl, Li₉Al₄, Li₃Al, Zn, LiZn, Ag, LiAg, Li₁₀Ag₃, B, Li₅B₄, Li₇B₆, Ge, Si, Li₁₂Si₇, Li₂₁Si₈, Li₁₃Si₄, Li₂₁Si₅, Sn, Li₅Sn₂, Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂, Li₂₂Sn₅, Sb, Li₂Sb, Li₃Sb, Bi, LiBi, Li₃Bi, SnO₂, SnO, MnO, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₃O₄, CoO, NiO, FeO, LiFe₂O₄, TiO₂, LiTi₂O₄, glass with a Sn—

B—

P—

O compound and mesocarbon microbeads coated with at least one of poly(o-methoxyanaline), poly(3-octylthiophene), and poly(vinylidene fluoride).

63. The interpenetrating network of claim 57, wherein the medium is at least one of poly(ethylene oxide), poly(styrene), poly(acrylonitrile), poly(vinylidene fluoride), diiodomethane, 1,3-diiodopropane, N,N-dimethylformamide, dimethylpropylene urea, ethylene carbonate, diethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, propylene carbonate, a block copolymer lithium electrolyte doped with a lithium salt, glass with at least one of LiI, LiF, LiCl, Li₂O—

B₂O₃—

Bi₂O₃, Li₂O—

B₂O₃—

P₂O₅ and Li₂O—

B₂O₃—

PbO and a sol or gel of the oxides or hydroxides of Ti, Zr, Pb, or Bi.

64. The interpenetrating network of claim 57, wherein a second Hamaker constant characterizing the interaction of the first component with itself is positive.

65. The interpenetrating network of claim 57, wherein a third Hamaker constant characterizing the interaction of the second component with itself is positive.

66. A bipolar device comprising an interpenetrating network in which each continuous component of the interpenetrating network is each attached to a separate current collector.

68. The device of claim 66, wherein the first material comprises anodic particles forming a first network.

69. The device of claim 68, wherein the second material comprises cathodic particles forming a second network.

70. The device of claim 69, wherein the first and second networks are interpenetrating.

71. The device of claim 66, wherein the repelling force comprises van der Waals forces.

72. The device of claim 66, wherein the repelling force comprises electrostatic forces.

73. The device of claim 66, wherein the repelling force comprises molecular steric forces.

74. The device of claim 66, wherein the medium is selected to facilitate diffusion of intercalating ions between the first and second materials.

75. The device of claim 74, wherein the intercalating ion is a lithium ion.

76. The device of claim 66, wherein the medium comprises a solid polymeric material.

77. The device of claim 66, wherein the first material is lithiated.

78. The device of claim 66, wherein the second material is lithiated.

67. A bipolar device comprising a first material and a second material, each selected such that the first material and the second material exert a mutually repelling force when dispersed in a medium.

79. A method comprising:

forming a bipolar article by introducing a first component comprising a plurality of first sub-components that are self-attractive; and

introducing a second component comprising a plurality of second sub-components that are self-attractive and that exert a repelling force on the first component in a medium.

80. The method of claim 79, further comprising the step of allowing the particles of the first component to self-organize into a first network.

81. The method of claim 79, further comprising the step of allowing the particles of the second component to self-aggregate into a second network.

82. The method of claim 79, further comprising the step of allowing the particles of the first and second components to self-aggregate into an interpenetrating network.

83. An article comprising:

a plurality of first particles dispersed in a medium; and

a plurality of second particles dispersed in the medium, the second particles including a coating that comprises a material that exerts a repelling force on the first particles.

84. The article of claim 83, wherein the coating comprises at least one of poly(o-methoxyanaline), poly(3-octylthiophene), poly(vinylidene fluoride) and poly(ethylene oxide).

86. The article of claim 84, wherein at least a portion of the first network occupies a spatial region that is essentially free of the second network.

87. The article of claim 84, wherein at least a portion of the second network occupies a spatial region that is essentially free of the first network.

85. An article comprising:

a first network of first electronically-connected particles dispersed with a second network of second electronically-connected particles in a medium, the first and second particles exerting a mutually repelling force.

88. An article comprising a medium, a plurality of first electronically-conductive particles dispersed in the medium and a plurality of second electronically-conducting particles dispersed in the medium, wherein the first and second electronically-conductive particles are self-attracting and the first and second electronically-conducting particles each exert a mutually repelling force on each other.

89. A method for producing a bipolar device comprising:

providing an interpenetrating system comprising an electronically-insulating medium, a first network of electronically-connected particles of a first type and a second network of second electronically-connected particles of a second type;

segregating at least a portion of the particles of the first type into a first spatial region that is essentially free of the second network; and

segregating at least a portion of the particles of the second type into a second spatial region that is essentially free of the first network.

90. The method of claim 89, wherein the steps of segregating at least a portion of the particles of the first type and segregating at least a portion of the particles of the second type are performed essentially simultaneously.

91. The method of any of claims 89 and 90, wherein the step of segregating at least a portion of the particles of the first type comprises allowing at least a portion of the particles of the first type to float to a spatial region that is essentially free of the second network.

92. The method of any of claims 89 and 90, wherein the step of segregating at least a portion of the particles of the first type comprises allowing at least a portion of the particles of the first type to sink to a spatial region that is essentially free of the second network.

93. The method of claim 89, further comprising the step of depositing a first current collector adjacent to the first spatial region and a second current collector adjacent to the second spatial region.

94. The method of claim 93, wherein the first current collector is comprised of at least one material also comprising electronically-connected particles of the first type.

95. The method of claim 93, wherein the second current collector is comprised of at least one material also comprising electronically-connected particles of the second type.

96. The method of claim 93, wherein the first current collector is electronically-connected to the first network and the second current collector is electronically-connected to the second network.

97. The method of any of claims 89, 90, 93, 94, 95 and 96, further comprising the step of immobilizing the first and second networks.

98. The method of claim 97, wherein the step of immobilizing comprises allowing the medium to solidify.

101. The electrochromic device of claim 97, wherein a first current collector that is attractive to cathode particles and repelling to anode particles, and a second current collector that is attractive to anode particles and repelling to cathode particles, are each joined to the edges of the device while being electronically isolated from one another.

102. The electrochromic device of claims 97 and 98, in which at least one electrode material is vanadium oxide, hydrated vanadium oxide, vanadium oxopolymer produced by partial hydrolysis of vanadium alkoxides, or a vanadium oxide—

polymer blend or nanocomposite is used as the anode.

99. A capacitor comprising a first pole comprising a first material and a second pole comprising a second material, the first pole separated from the second pole by an electronically-insulating material, the combination of the insulating, first and second materials providing a Hamaker constant that is negative.

100. An electrochromic device comprising a first pole comprising a first material and a second pole comprising a second material, at least one of which changes its color or optical transmission when oxidized or reduced, the first pole being separated from the second pole by an electronically-insulating material, and the combination of the first, insulating, and second materials providing a Hamaker constant that is negative.

103. An energy storage device comprising a first electrode comprising a first material and a second electrode comprising a second material, at least a portion of the first and second materials forming an interpenetrating network when dispersed in an electrolyte, the electrolyte, the first material and the second material are selected so that the first and second materials exert a repelling force on each other when combined.

104. The energy storage device of claim 103, wherein the first electrode comprises a lithium intercalating material.

105. The energy storage device of claim 103, wherein the second electrode comprises a lithium intercalating material.

106. The energy storage device of claim 103, wherein the first material has a density that is less than the second material when the first and second materials are dispersed in the electrolyte.

107. The energy storage device of claim 103, wherein at least one of the first and second electrodes is deposited as thin film.

108. The energy storage device of claim 103, wherein a Hamaker constant characterizing the interaction between the electrolyte, the first material and the second material is negative.

109. A method for producing a bipolar device comprising:

providing a medium including an interpenetrating system comprising a first network of first electronically-connected particles and a second network of second electronically-connected particles; and

providing a first current collector comprising particles that exert an attractive force on the first electronically-connected particles and a repelling force on the second electronically-connected particles.

110. The method of claim 109, further comprising providing a second current collector comprising particles that exert an attractive force on the second electronically-connected particles and a repelling force on the first electronically-connected particles.

111. A bipolar article comprising an interpenetrating network comprising a first component, a second component, and a third component, wherein the first and third components are substantially electronically isolated from one another in the absence of a voltage difference externally applied between the first and third components.

112. An article comprising:

a plurality of first particles;

a plurality of second particles; and

a medium, the combination providing a repelling force between the first and second particles.