Variance reduction simulation system, program product, and related methods

• US 20060285640A1
• Filed: 06/16/2006
• Published: 12/21/2006
• Est. Priority Date: 06/16/2005
• Status: Active Grant

• Current Assignee: Best Medical International Incorporated (TeamBest Group)
• Original Assignee: Nomos Corporation (North American Scientific, Inc.)
• Inventors: Ma, Feng, Pino, Ramiro, Nizin, Paul S.
• Granted Patent: US 8,125,813 B2
• Time in Patent Office: Days
• US Class Current: 378/65
• CPC Class Codes: A61N 2005/1034 Monte Carlo type methods; particle tracking
• CPC Class Codes: A61N 5/1031 using a specific method of dose optimization
• CPC Class Codes: G06F 2111/08 Probabilistic or stochastic CAD
• CPC Class Codes: G06F 2111/10 Numerical modelling
• CPC Class Codes: G06F 30/00 Computer-aided design [CAD]

Abstract

A system to provide enhanced computational efficiency in a simulation of particle transport through a medium, program product, and related methods are provided. The system can include a simulation data administrator server having access to an interaction database including records related to parameters describing interactions of particles in an absorbing medium to provide particle interaction parameters, and a simulated dose calculation computer in communication with the simulation data administrator server through a communications network. The system can also included simulated dose calculation program product stored in memory of the simulated dose calculation computer and including instructions that when executed by a processor causes the processor to perform for each of a plurality of particles deliverable from a particle source the operations of providing parameters for a medium to perform a Monte Carlo simulation to develop a map of simulated absorbed dose in the medium, and artificially adjusting simulation particle fluxes to achieve a substantially constant variance throughout a depth of the medium.

Claims

1. A system for increasing efficiency in a simulation of particle transport through a medium, comprising:

a communication network;

an image gathering device accessible to the communication network to provide an at least two-dimensional image slice of a target volume and an adjacent structure volume in a patient;

a radiation treatment planning computer in communication with the image gathering device and having memory, a processor coupled to the memory, and radiation treatment planning program product stored in the memory adapted to produce an optimized radiation treatment plan for delivering radiation to the target volume;

a radiation beam source to deliver radiation to the target according to the radiation treatment plan;

a simulation data administrator server in communication with the communication network and having access to an interaction database including records related to parameters describing interactions of particles in an absorbing medium to provide particle interaction parameters;

a simulated dose calculation computer in communication with the radiation treatment planning computer and the simulation data administrator server through the communications network and including memory and a plurality of processors coupled to the memory to calculate a simulated absorbed dose in the absorbing medium deliverable according to the radiation treatment plan; and

simulated dose calculation program product stored in the memory of the simulated dose calculation computer and including instructions that when executed by at least one of the plurality of processors causes the at least one of the plurality of processors to perform the operation of modeling the target volume and adjacent structure volume to define the absorbing medium and to perform for each of a plurality of particles deliverable from the beam source the following simulation operations;

labeling the particle as a primary particle responsive to initiating a radiation delivery simulation through the absorbing medium according to the radiation treatment plan,

transporting the primary particle through the absorbing medium,

tracking the primary particle through the absorbing medium until undergoing a scattering event,

determining the scattering event to have occurred, the scattering event resulting in a change in incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the absorbing medium,

consulting the interaction database responsive to the scattering event and retrieving data on the primary particle and any secondary particles resulting from the scattering event when so existing,

recording energy deposited from the scattering event to thereby build a map of simulated absorbed dose,

creating a new virtual particle defining a restored virtual particle responsive to the scattering event to thereby artificially restore incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the absorbing medium changed in response to the scattering event,

inheriting by the restored virtual particle properties from the primary particle,

labeling the restored virtual particle as a primary particle and the original primary particle determined to have scattered as a scattered particle responsive to the scattering event,

assigning a weight factor to each scattered virtual particle to compensate for artificial constancy of the particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for the simulated absorbed dose, and

producing a three-dimensional map of simulated absorbed dose delivered to the absorbing medium.

2. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning the same weight factor to each virtual particle resulting from the scattering event to compensate for the artificial constancy of the particle fluence resulting from the artificial restoration of incident particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for the simulated absorbed dose.

3. A system as defined in claim 2, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

Σ

μ

_iz_i), wherein W_h-1 is a weight factor of the primary particle before the scattering event, wherein z_i is a step length, wherein μ

_i is an attenuation coefficient within each step length zi, and wherein Σ

μ

_iz_i represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned the weight factor W_h-1.

4. A system as defined in claim 2, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

(d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1))), wherein W_h-1 is a weight factor of the primary particle before the scattering event, wherein I identifies a given voxel, wherein d_eff(I) represents a precalculated voxel-dependent array of radiological path lengths, and wherein d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1) represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned the weight factor W_h-1.

5. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning the restored virtual particle a new weight factor according to an attenuation coefficient responsive to creating the restored virtual particle.

6. A system as defined in claim 5, wherein the restored virtual particle inherits all properties of the primary particle except for the assigned new weight factor.

7. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the scattering event includes one of the following:

Compton scattering, pair production, photo-electric effect, coherent scattering, elastic interactions, nuclear excitation, nuclear reactions, and neutron decay.

8. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the instructions further include those to perform the operation of not restoring scattered particles in further scattering events.

9. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the absorbing medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, a first medium type having a first density ρ

1 and associated with a first particle mean free path, and a second medium type having a second density ρ

2 and associated with a second particle mean free path, and wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operations of;

restoring a number of primary particles responsive to the scattering event for each of the plurality of primary particles; and

scaling the number of restored particles according to a ratio approximately equal to one of the following;

a ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type, a ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type times a factor dependent on a ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, and a ratio of the second particle mean free path to the first particle mean free path.

10. A system as defined in claim 9, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

Σ

μ

_iz_i)(x₂/x₁), wherein W_h-1 is a weight factor of the primary particle before the scattering event, wherein z_i is a step length, wherein μ

_i is an attenuation coefficient within each step length z_i, and wherein Σ

μ

_iz_i represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned the weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

a ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1, a ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1 times a factor dependent on the ratio of atomic numbers for the second and the first medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, and a ratio of the first particle mean free path to the second particle mean free path.

11. A system as defined in claim 9, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

R)(x₂/x₁), wherein W_h-1 is a weight factor of the primary particle before the scattering event, and wherein R represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned the weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

a ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1, a ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1 times a factor dependent on the ratio of atomic numbers for the second and the first medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is substantially different from unity, and the ratio of the first particle mean free path to the second particle mean free path.

12. A system as defined in claim 11, wherein R=d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1), wherein I identifies a given voxel, and wherein d_eff(I) represents a precalculated voxel-dependent array of radiological path lengths.

13. A system as defined in claim 1, wherein the absorbing medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, and wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform at least one of the following operations:

splitting each one of the plurality of primary particles into a number of particles responsive to each one of the plurality of primary particles passing an interface between a first medium type and a second medium type having a lower density than the first medium type, the number of split primary particles proportional to a density ratio times a factor dependent on a ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the second medium type and the first medium type; and

randomly removing a subset of the plurality of primary particles at a removal probability responsive to the plurality of primary particles passing an interface between a third medium type and a fourth medium type having a higher density than the third medium type, the removal probability proportional to a density ratio times a factor dependent on a ratio of atomic numbers for the third and the fourth medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the fourth medium type and the third medium type.

14. A system for increasing efficiency in a simulation of particle transport through a medium, comprising:

a simulated dose calculation computer including memory and at least one processor coupled to the memory to calculate a simulated absorbed dose in an absorbing medium; and

simulated dose calculation program product stored in the memory of the simulated dose calculation computer and including instructions that when executed by the at least one processor causes the at least one processor to perform the following simulation operations;

labeling a particle as a primary particle responsive to initiating a radiation delivery simulation,

creating a new virtual particle defining a restored virtual particle responsive to a collision event involving the primary particle,

labeling the restored virtual particle as a primary particle and the original primary particle as a scattered particle responsive to the collision event; and

restoring incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the absorbing medium changed in response to the collision event.

15. A system as defined in claim 14, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning a weight factor to each scattered virtual particle to compensate for artificial constancy of the particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for the simulated absorbed dose.

16. A system as defined in claim 15, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning a weight factor to each restored virtual particle resulting from the collision event to compensate for the artificial constancy of the particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for the simulated absorbed dose.

17. A system as defined in claim 16, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

(d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1))), wherein W_h-1 is a weight factor of the primary particle before the scattering event, wherein I identifies a given voxel, wherein d_eff(I) represents a precalculated voxel-dependent array of radiological path lengths, and wherein d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1) represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned the weight factor W_h-1.

18. A system as defined in claim 17, wherein the restored virtual particle inherits all properties of the primary particle except for the assigned new weight factor.

19. A system as defined in claim 14, wherein the collision event includes one of the following:

Compton scattering, pair production, photo-electric effect, and coherent scattering, elastic interactions, nuclear excitation, nuclear reactions, and neutron decay.

20. A system as defined in claim 14, wherein the instructions further include those to perform the operation of not restoring scattered particles in further collision events.

21. A system as defined in claim 14,

wherein the absorbing medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, a first medium type having a first density ρ

1 and associated with a first particle mean free path, and a second medium type having a second density ρ

2 and associated with a second particle mean free path;

wherein the restoration operation is performed on each of a plurality of primary particles each experiencing a collision; and

wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of restoring a number of particles on average defining restored virtual particles responsive to the collision events according to a ratio approximately equal to one of the following;

a ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type, a ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type times a factor dependent on a ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, and a ratio of the second particle mean free path to the first particle mean free path.

22. A system as defined in claim 21, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

Σ

μ

_iz_i)(x₂/x₁), wherein W_h-1 is a weight factor of the primary particle before the collision event, wherein z_i is a step length, wherein μ

_i is an attenuation coefficient within each step length z_i, and wherein Σ

μ

_iz_i is the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned a weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

the ratio of the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type to the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type, the ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1 times the factor dependent on the ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, and the ratio of the first particle mean free path to the second particle mean free path.

23. A system as defined in claim 21, wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform the operation of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

R)(x₂/x₁), wherein R is the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned a weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

the ratio of the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type to the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type, the ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1 times the factor dependent on the ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, and the ratio of the first particle mean free path to the second particle mean free path.

24. A system as defined in claim 14, wherein the absorbing medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, wherein a plurality of primary particles is transported through the absorbing medium, and wherein the simulated dose calculation program product further includes instructions to perform at least one of the following operations:

randomly removing at least a portion of the plurality of primary particles at a removal probability responsive to the plurality of primary particles passing an interface between a first medium type and a second medium type having a higher density than the first medium type, the removal probability proportional to a density ratio times a ratio of atomic numbers for the first medium type and the second medium type when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the second medium type and the first medium type; and

splitting each of the plurality of primary particles into a number of particles responsive to passing an interface between a third medium type and a fourth medium type having a lower density than the third medium type, the number of split primary particles proportional to a density ratio times a ratio of atomic numbers for the third medium type and the fourth medium type when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the fourth medium type and the third medium type.

25. A method of increasing efficiency in a simulation of particle transport through a medium, comprising the steps of:

selecting an original particle from a radiation source;

tracking the selected original particle through a medium until undergoing a collision event, the collision event resulting in a change in incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the medium;

consulting an interaction database responsive to the collision event;

retrieving data on the original particle and each secondary particle resulting from the collision event;

recording energy deposited from the collision event; and

creating a new virtual particle defining a restored virtual particle responsive to the collision event to thereby artificially restore incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the medium changed in response to the collision event.

26. A method as defined in claim 25, wherein both the original particle and the restored virtual particle are primary particles, and wherein the method further comprises:

inheriting by the restored virtual particle all properties of the original particle except for an assigned new weight factor; and

labeling the restored virtual particle as a primary particle and the original primary particle determined to have collided as a scattered particle responsive to the collision event.

27. A method as defined in claim 25, wherein the collision event results in at least one scattered virtual particle, and wherein the method further comprises the steps of:

assigning weight factors to each scattered virtual particle to compensate for the artificial constancy of the particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for the simulated absorbed dose; and

producing a three-dimensional map of simulated radiation dose delivered to the medium.

28. A method as defined in claim 25 further comprising the step of assigning the restored virtual particle a new weight factor.

29. A method of increasing efficiency in a simulation of particle transport through a medium by reducing a number of required particles to be tracked, the method comprising the steps of:

labeling each of a plurality of original primary particles from a particle beam source separately as a primary particle;

transporting each of the plurality of original primary particles through an absorbing medium;

creating a new virtual particle defining a restored virtual particle responsive to a collision event of one of the plurality of original primary particles;

inheriting properties by the restored virtual particle from the collided original primary particle; and

labeling the restored virtual particle as a primary particle and the original primary particle as a scattered particle responsive to the collision event.

30. A method as defined in claim 29, further comprising the step of maintaining statistical uncertainty of simulated absorbed dose independent of depth within the absorbing medium.

31. A method as defined in claim 29, further comprising the step of maintaining primary particle fluence invariant with the depth of the absorbing medium.

32. A method as defined in claim 29, wherein the absorbing medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, a first medium type having a first density ρ

1 and associated with a first particle mean free path, and a second medium type having a second density ρ

2 and associated with a second particle mean free path, wherein the step of creating a restored virtual particle is performed for a plurality of original primary particles and a plurality of restored particles each encountering a collision event in the second medium type at a rate approximately proportional to one of the following;

a ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type, a ratio of the first density ρ

1 to the second density ρ

2 times a factor dependent on the ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, and a ratio of the second particle mean free path to the first particle mean free path.

33. A method as defined in claim 32, further comprising the step of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor W_h is defined as W_h-1 exp(−

Σ

μ

_iz_i)(x₂/x₁), wherein W_h-1 is the weight factor of the primary particle before the collision event, wherein z_i is a step length, wherein μ

_i is an attenuation coefficient within each step length z_i, wherein Σ

μ

_iz_i represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned a weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

the ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type, the ratio of the first density ρ

1 to the second density ρ

2 times the factor dependent on the ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity and the ratio of the second particle mean free path to the first particle mean free path.

34. A method as defined in claim 32, further comprising the step of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor W_h is defined as W_h-1 exp(−

(d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1))(x₂/x₁), wherein I identifies a given voxel, wherein d_eff(I) represents a precalculated voxel-dependent array of radiological path lengths, wherein d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1) represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned a weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

the ratio of the first density ρ

1 to the second density ρ

2, the ratio of the first density ρ

1 to the second density ρ

2 times the factor dependent on the ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, and the ratio of the second particle mean free path to the first particle mean free path.

35. A method as defined in claim 29, wherein the absorbing medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, the method further comprising performing at least one of the following steps to maintain substantially constant a number of collision events per unit volume throughout the absorbing medium:

splitting at least one of the plurality of primary particles into a number of particles responsive to the at least one of the plurality of primary particles passing an interface between a first medium type and a second medium type having a lower density than the first medium type to compensate for beam divergence inherent in lower density material to thereby maintain approximately constant a number of collision events per unit volume, the number of split primary particles proportional to a density ratio times a ratio of atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the second medium type and the first medium type; and

randomly removing at least one of the plurality of primary particles at a removal probability responsive to the at least one of the plurality of primary particles passing an interface between a third medium type and a fourth medium type having a higher density than the third medium type, the removal probability proportional to a density ratio times a ratio of atomic numbers for the third and the fourth medium types when the ratio of atomic numbers is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the fourth medium type and the third medium type.

36. A method to increase efficiency of Monte Carlo simulations of particle transport or radiation fluxes, comprising the steps of:

providing parameters for a medium to perform a Monte Carlo simulation thereon; and

artificially adjusting simulation particle fluxes to achieve a substantially constant accuracy throughout a depth of the medium.

37. A method as defined in claim 36, wherein the step of artificially adjusting the simulation particle flux is achieved by:

restoring a particle when the particle is absorbed or scattered; and

assigning the restored particle a weight factor according to an attenuation coefficient and particle mean free path of the restored particle to thereby achieve unbiased final simulation results.

38. A method of claim 36, wherein the medium includes two medium types, and wherein the step of artificially adjusting the simulation particle flux is achieved by at least one of the following:

restoring for each of a plurality of original particles a number of particles defining restored particles when an original particle transported through the medium is determined to be absorbed or scattered defining a collision event, scaling the number of restored particles according to a mean free path of the original particle associated with the medium at a location of the collision event, and assigning each restored particles a weight factor to thereby achieve unbiased final simulation results; and

restoring an original particle according to a probability, the probability corresponding to a density ratio for the two medium types, the density ratio times a ratio of the atomic numbers for the two medium types, or a mean free path ratio for the two medium types.

39. A method of claim 36, wherein the medium includes a plurality of medium types, and wherein the step of artificially adjusting the simulation particle flux is achieved by:

splitting a particle to a number of particles responsive to the particle passing an interface between a first medium type and a second medium type having a lower density than the first medium type, the number of split particles proportional to a density ratio times a correction factor, or a mean-free-path ratio of the second medium type and the first medium type; and

randomly removing the particle at a removal probability responsive to the particle passing an interface between a third medium type and a fourth medium type having a higher density than the third medium type, the removal probability proportional to a density ratio times a correction factor, or a mean-free-path ratio of the fourth medium type and the third medium type.

40. A computer readable medium that is readable by at least one computer processor, the computer readable medium comprising a set of instructions that, when executed by the at least one computer processor, cause the at least one computer processor to perform the following operations:

selecting a particle from a radiation source;

tracking the selected particle through a medium until undergoing a collision event, the collision event resulting in a change in incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the medium;

consulting an interaction database responsive to the collision event;

retrieving data on the particle and each secondary particle resulting from the collision event;

recording energy deposited from the collision event; and

creating a new virtual particle defining a restored virtual particle responsive to the collision event to thereby artificially restore incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the medium changed in response to the collision event.

41. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 40, wherein the particle is a primary particle, and wherein the restored virtual particle inherits all properties of the primary particle except for an assigned new weight factor.

42. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 40, wherein the collision event results in at least one scattered virtual particle, and wherein the instructions further include those to perform the operations of:

assigning weight factors to each scattered virtual particle to compensate for the artificial constancy of the particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for the simulated absorbed dose; and

producing a three-dimensional map of simulated radiation dose delivered to the medium responsive to the recorded energy from the collision event.

43. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 42, wherein the instructions further include those to perform the operation of assigning the restored virtual particle a new weight factor.

44. A computer readable medium that is readable by at least one computer processor, the computer readable medium comprising a set of instructions that, when executed by the at least one computer processor, cause the at least one computer processor to perform the following operations:

creating a new virtual particle defining a restored virtual particle responsive to a collision event, the collision event resulting in a change in incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in a medium;

labeling the restored virtual particle as a primary particle and an original primary particle determined to have collided as a scattered particle responsive to the collision event; and

restoring incident particle fluence with depth of propagation in the medium changed in response to the collision event.

45. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 44, wherein the instructions further include those to perform the operation of assigning a weight factor to each scattered virtual particle to compensate for artificial constancy of the particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for calculating simulated absorbed dose.

46. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 45, wherein the instructions further include those to perform the operation of assigning a weight factor to each restored virtual particle resulting from the collision event to compensate for the artificial constancy of the particle fluence to thereby yield unbiased results for calculating the simulated absorbed dose.

47. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 45, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

Σ

μ

_iz_i), wherein W_h-1 is the weight factor of the primary particle before the collision event, wherein z_i is a step length, wherein μ

_i is an attenuation coefficient within each step length z_i, and wherein Σ

μ

_iz_i represents the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned a weight factor W_h-1.

48. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 45, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

(d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1)), wherein W_h-1 is a weight factor of the primary particle before the scattering event, wherein I identifies a given voxel, wherein d_eff(I) represents a precalculated voxel-dependent array of radiological path lengths, and wherein (d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1) is the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned the weight factor W_h-1.

49. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 48, wherein the restored virtual particle inherits all properties of the collided primary particle except for the assigned weight factor.

50. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 44,

wherein the medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, a first medium type having a first density ρ

1 and associated with a first particle mean free path, and a second medium type having a second density ρ

2 and associated with a second particle mean free path;

wherein the restoration operation is performed on each of a plurality of primary particles each experiencing a collision; and

wherein the instructions include those to perform the operation of restoring a number of particles on average defining restored virtual particles responsive to the collision events according to a ratio approximately equal to at least one of the following;

a ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type, a ratio of the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type to the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type times a correction factor when a ratio of average atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types is different from unity, and a ratio of the second particle mean free path to the first particle mean free path.

51. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 50, wherein the instructions include those to perform the operation of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor is defined as W_h=W_h-1 exp(−

Σ

μ

_iz_i)(x₂/x₁), wherein W_h-1 is the weight factor of the primary particle before the collision event, wherein z_i is a step length, wherein μ

_i is an attenuation coefficient within each step length z_i, and wherein Σ

μ

_iz_i is the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned a weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

the ratio of the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type to the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type, the ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1 type times a correction factor when a ratio of average atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types is different from unity, and the ratio of the first particle mean free path to the second particle mean free path.

52. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 50, wherein the instructions include those to perform the operation of assigning each restored virtual particle a new weight factor W_h responsive to creating the restored virtual particle, wherein the weight factor W_h is defined as W_h-1 exp(−

(d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1))(x₂/x₁), wherein W_h-1 is the weight factor of the primary particle before the collision event, wherein I identifies a given voxel, wherein d_eff(I) represents a precalculated voxel-dependent array of radiological path lengths, wherein (d_eff(I_h)−

d_eff(I_h-1) is the radiological path length between a current location and the previous location where the primary particle was last assigned a weight factor W_h-1, and wherein the ratio x₂/x₁ is defined as one of the following;

the ratio of the second density ρ

2 of the second medium type to the first density ρ

1 of the first medium type, the ratio of the second density ρ

2 to the first density ρ

1 times a correction factor when a ratio of average atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types is different from unity, and the ratio of the first particle mean free path to the second particle mean free path.

53. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 44, wherein the medium is heterogeneous having at least two different medium types, wherein a plurality of primary particles is transported through the medium, and wherein the instructions include those to perform at least one of the following operations:

randomly removing at least a portion of the plurality of primary particles at a removal probability responsive to the plurality of primary particles passing an interface between a first medium type and a second medium type having a higher density than the first medium type, the removal probability proportional to a density ratio times a correction factor when a ratio of average atomic numbers for the first and the second medium types is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the second medium type and the first medium type; and

splitting each of the plurality of primary particles into a number of particles responsive to passing an interface between a third medium type and a fourth medium type having a lower density than the third medium type, the number of split primary particles proportional to a density ratio times a correction factor when a ratio of average atomic numbers for the third and the fourth medium types is different from unity, or a mean-free-path ratio of the fourth medium type and the third medium type.

54. A computer readable medium that is readable by at least one computer processor, the computer readable medium comprising a set of instructions that, when executed by the at least one computer processor, cause the at least one computer processor to perform the following operations:

providing parameters for a medium to perform a Monte Carlo simulation thereon; and

artificially adjusting simulation particle fluxes to achieve a substantially constant variance throughout a depth of the medium.

55. A computer readable medium as defined in claim 54, wherein the operation of artificially adjusting the simulation particle flux is achieved by:

restoring a particle when the particle is absorbed or scattered; and

assigning the restored particle a weight factor according to an attenuation coefficient particle mean free path of the restored particle to thereby achieve unbiased simulation final results.

56. A computer readable medium of claim 54, wherein the medium includes two medium types, and wherein the operation of artificially adjusting the simulation particle flux is achieved by at least one of the following:

restoring for each of a plurality of original particles a number of particles defining restored particles when an original particle transported through the medium is absorbed or scattered defining a collision event;

scaling the number of restored particles according to a mean free path of the original particle associated with the medium at a location of the collision event; and

assigning each restored particles a weight factor to thereby achieve unbiased simulation final results; and

restoring an original particle according to a probability, the probability corresponding to a density ratio for the two medium types, the density ratio times a ratio of the atomic numbers for the two medium types, or a mean free path ratio for the two medium types.