Method of Manufacturing a Light Emitting, Photovoltaic or Other Electronic Apparatus and System

• US 20100068839A1
• Filed: 09/15/2009
• Published: 03/18/2010
• Est. Priority Date: 05/31/2007
• Status: Active Grant

• Current Assignee: NthDegree Technologies Worldwide Inc., The United States of America As Represented By The Secretary of Agriculture
• Original Assignee: NthDegree Technologies Worldwide Inc.
• Inventors: Frazier, Donald Odell, Blanchard, Richard A., Ray, William Johnstone, Lowenthal, Mark David, Shotton, Neil O., Fuller, Kirk A., Lewandowski, Mark Allan
• Granted Patent: US 8,456,393 B2
• Time in Patent Office: Days
• US Class Current: 438/29
• CPC Class Codes: B82Y 20/00 Nanooptics, e.g. quantum optics or photonic crystals
• CPC Class Codes: B82Y 30/00 Nanotechnology for materials or surface science, e.g. nanocomposites
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 21/30 Treatment of semiconductor bodies using processes or apparatus not provided for in groups H01L21/20 - H01L21/26 manufacture of electrodes thereon H01L21/28
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 25/0753 the devices being arranged next to each other
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 27/142 Energy conversion devices photovoltaic modules or arrays of single photovoltaic cells comprising bypass diodes integrated or directly associated with the devices H01L31/0443; photovoltaic modules composed of a plurality of thin film solar cells deposited on the same substrate H01L31/046
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 27/156 two-dimensional arrays
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 2924/00 Indexing scheme for arrangements or methods for connecting or disconnecting semiconductor or solid-state bodies as covered by H01L24/00
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 2924/0002 Not covered by any one of groups H01L24/00, H01L24/00 and H01L2224/00
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/028 including, apart from doping material or other impurities, only elements of Group IV of the Periodic Table
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0304 including, apart from doping materials or other impurities, only AIIIBV compounds
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/03044 comprising a nitride compounds, e.g. GaN
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0328 including, apart from doping materials or other impurities, semiconductor materials provided for in two or more of groups H01L31/0272 - H01L31/032
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0352 characterised by their shape or by the shapes, relative sizes or disposition of the semiconductor regions
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/035281 Shape of the body
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0475 PV cell arrays made by cells in a planar, e.g. repetitive, configuration on a single semiconductor substrate; PV cell microarrays PV modules composed of a plurality of thin film solar cells deposited on the same substrate H01L31/046
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/05 Electrical interconnection means between PV cells inside the PV module, e.g. series connection of PV cells electrodes H01L31/0224; electrical interconnection of thin film solar cells formed on a common substrate H01L31/046; particular structures for electrical interconnecting of adjacent thin film solar cells in the module H01L31/0465; electrical interconnection means specially adapted for electrically connecting two or more PV modules H02S40/36
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0504 specially adapted for series or parallel connection of solar cells in a module
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0508 the interconnection means having a particular shape
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0512 made of a particular material or composition of materials
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0543 comprising light concentrating means of the refractive type, e.g. lenses
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0547 : comprising light concentrating means of the reflecting type, e.g. parabolic mirrors, concentrators using total internal reflection
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/068 : the potential barriers being only of the PN homojunction type, e.g. bulk silicon PN homojunction solar cells or thin film polycrystalline silicon PN homojunction solar cells
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/00 : Semiconductor devices having potential barriers specially adapted for light emission; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof H10K50/00 takes precedence; devices consisting of a plurality of semiconductor components formed in or on a common substrate and including semiconductor components having potential barriers, specially adapted for light emission H01L27/15; semiconductor lasers H01S5/00
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/08 : with a plurality of light emitting regions, e.g. laterally discontinuous light emitting layer or photoluminescent region integrated within the semiconductor body H01L27/15 takes precedence
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/20 : with a particular shape, e.g. curved or truncated substrate
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/30 : containing only elements of Group III and Group V of the Periodic Table
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/32 : containing nitrogen
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/34 : containing only elements of Group IV of the Periodic Table
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/58 : Optical field-shaping elements
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/60 : Reflective elements
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 33/62 : Arrangements for conducting electric current to or from the semiconductor body, e.g. lead-frames, wire-bonds or solder balls
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 2102/331 : Nanoparticles used in non-emissive layers, e.g. in packaging layer
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 30/87 : Light-trapping means
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 50/80 : Constructional details
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 50/805 : Electrodes
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 50/852 : comprising a resonant cavity structure, e.g. Bragg reflector pair
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 50/856 : comprising reflective means
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 50/858 : comprising refractive means, e.g. lenses
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 59/00 : Integrated devices, or assemblies of multiple devices, comprising at least one organic light-emitting element covered by group H10K50/00
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 59/17 : Passive-matrix OLED displays
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 71/00 : Manufacture or treatment specially adapted for the organic devices covered by this subclass
• CPC Class Codes: H10K 77/10 : Substrates, e.g. flexible substrates
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 10/52 : PV systems with concentrators
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 10/544 : Solar cells from Group III-V materials
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 10/547 : Monocrystalline silicon PV cells
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 10/549 : Organic PV cells
• CPC Class Codes: Y02P 70/50 : Manufacturing or production processes characterised by the final manufactured product

Abstract

The present invention provides a method of manufacturing an electronic apparatus, such as a lighting device having light emitting diodes (LEDs) or a power generating device having photovoltaic diodes. The exemplary method includes forming at least one first conductor coupled to a base; coupling a plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor; converting the plurality of substrate particles into a plurality of diodes; forming at least one second conductor coupled to the plurality of spherical diodes; and depositing or attaching a plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in a first polymer, with the lenses and the suspending polymer having different indices of refraction. In some embodiments, the lenses and diodes have a ratio of mean diameters or lengths between about 10:1 and 2:1. In various embodiments, the forming, coupling and converting steps are performed by or through a printing process.

Claims

1. A method of manufacturing an electronic apparatus, the method comprising:

forming a plurality of first conductors coupled to a base;

coupling a plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors;

subsequent to the coupling to the plurality of first conductors, converting the plurality of substrate particles into a plurality of diodes;

forming a plurality of second conductors coupled to the plurality of diodes; and

depositing a plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in a first polymer, the plurality of substantially spherical lenses having at least a first index of refraction and the first polymer having at least a second, different index of refraction.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of diodes are substantially spherical, substantially toroidal, substantially cylindrical, substantially faceted, substantially rectangular, substantially flat, or substantially elliptical.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of depositing further comprises:

printing the plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in the first polymer over the plurality of diodes and the plurality of second conductors.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of diodes are substantially spherical and wherein a ratio of a mean diameter of the plurality of substantially spherical lenses to a mean diameter of the plurality of diodes is substantially about five to one (5:

1).

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of diodes are substantially spherical and wherein a ratio of a mean diameter of the plurality of substantially spherical lenses to a mean diameter of the plurality of diodes is between about ten to one (10:

1) and two to one (2;

1).

6. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of diodes are substantially spherical and wherein the comparative size or spacing of the plurality of substantially spherical lenses provide a mode coupling to the plurality of diodes.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein a mean diameter or length of the plurality of diodes is greater than about twenty (20) microns and less than about forty (40) microns.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of diodes are semiconductor light emitting diodes, organic light emitting diodes, encapsulated organic light emitting diodes, polymer light emitting diodes, or photovoltaic diodes.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of depositing the plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in the first polymer further comprises attaching a prefabricated layer to the plurality of diodes, the prefabricated layer comprising the plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in the first polymer.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of substrate particles comprise gallium nitride, gallium arsenide, or silicon.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of forming the plurality of first conductors further comprises:

depositing a first conductive medium within a plurality of channels of the base.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the first conductive medium comprises a conductive ink or a conductive polymer.

13. The method of claim 11, wherein the first conductive medium comprises at least one of the following media:

a silver conductive ink, a copper conductive ink, a gold conductive ink, an aluminum conductive ink, a tin conductive ink, a carbon conductive ink, a carbon nanotube polymer, or a conductive polymer.

14. The method of claim 11, further comprising:

partially curing the first conductive medium.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors further comprises:

depositing within the plurality of channels the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a carrier medium; and

fully curing the first conductive medium.

16. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of depositing a first conductive medium comprises sputtering, coating, vapor depositing or electroplating a metal, a metal alloy, or a combination of metals.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein the metal, metal alloy, or combination of metals comprise at least one of the following:

aluminum, copper, silver, nickel, or gold.

18. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors further comprises:

depositing within the plurality of channels the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a reactive carrier medium;

removing the reactive carrier medium; and

curing or re-curing the first conductive medium.

19. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors further comprises:

depositing within the plurality of channels the plurality of substrate particles suspended in an anisotropic conductive medium;

compressing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in the anisotropic conductive medium.

20. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors further comprises:

depositing within the plurality of channels the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a volatile carrier medium; and

evaporating the volatile carrier medium.

21. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors further comprises:

depositing within the plurality of channels the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a carrier medium; and

annealing or alloying the plurality of substrate particles within the plurality of channels.

22. The method of claim 11, wherein the plurality of channels are spaced-apart and substantially parallel.

23. The method of claim 11, wherein the plurality of channels are at least partially hemispherically-shaped and are disposed in an array.

24. The method of claim 11, wherein the plurality of channels are spaced-apart and least partially parabolic.

25. The method of claim 11, wherein the base further comprises a plurality of angled ridges.

26. The method of claim 11, wherein the plurality of spaced-apart channels further comprise a plurality of integrally formed projections or supports.

27. The method of claim 26, wherein the plurality of first conductors are coupled to the plurality of integrally formed projections or supports within the plurality of spaced-apart channels and wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors further comprises:

depositing within the plurality of channels the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a carrier medium; and

annealing, or alloying, or chemically coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the plurality of first conductors.

28. The method of claim 1, wherein each substrate particle of the plurality of substrate particles comprises a semiconductor and wherein the step of converting the plurality of substrate particles into the plurality of diodes further comprises:

forming a pn junction in each substrate particle by depositing a dopant material onto the plurality of substrate particles and annealing or alloying the dopant material with the plurality of substrate particles.

29. The method of claim 28, wherein the annealing or alloying is laser or thermal annealing or alloying.

30. The method of claim 28, wherein the dopant material is a substrate liquid or film.

31. The method of claim 28, wherein the dopant material is a dopant element or compound suspended in a carrier.

32. The method of claim 28, wherein the dopant material is deposited on a first, upper portion of the plurality of substrate particles to form the plurality of diodes and wherein about fifteen percent to fifty-five percent of a surface of each diode of substantially all of the plurality of diodes has a penetration layer or region having a first majority carrier or dopant and the remaining diode substrate has a second majority carrier or dopant.

33. The method of claim 28, wherein the resulting plurality of diodes are light emitting diodes or photovoltaic diodes.

34. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of substrate particles comprise a first organic or polymer compound and wherein the step of converting the plurality of substrate particles into the plurality of diodes further comprises depositing a second organic or polymer compound onto the plurality of substrate particles.

35. The method of claim 34, wherein the second organic or polymer compound is a light emitting layer and wherein the resulting plurality of diodes are organic light emitting diodes or polymer light emitting diodes.

36. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

depositing a plurality of third conductors over or within the plurality of second conductors.

37. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

coupling a reflector or a refractor to the base.

38. The method of claim 1, wherein the base further comprises a Bragg reflector or a reflective plastic or polyester coating.

39. The method of claim 1, wherein the base further comprises a plurality of conductive vias extending between a first side and a second side of the base and correspondingly coupled at the first side to the plurality of first conductors.

40. The method of claim 39, wherein the plurality of conductive vias comprise a plurality of substantially randomly distributed, substantially spherical conductors.

41. The method of claim 40, wherein the base further comprises a conductive backplane coupled to the plurality of conductive vias and coupled to or integrated with the second side of the base.

42. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

depositing a plurality of inorganic dielectric particles suspended with a photoinitiator compound in a second polymer or resin to form a plurality of insulators correspondingly coupled to each of the plurality of diodes.

43. The method of claim 1, wherein the base comprises at least one of the following:

paper, coated paper, plastic coated paper, embossed paper, fiber paper, cardboard, poster paper, poster board, wood, plastic, rubber, fabric, glass, and/or ceramic.

44. The method of claim 1, wherein the step of forming the plurality of second conductors further comprises:

depositing an optically transmissive conductor or conductive compound suspended in a polymer, resin or other media.

45. The method of claim 44, wherein the optically transmissive conductor or conductive compound suspended in a polymer, resin or other media further comprises at least one of the following:

carbon nanotubes, antimony tin oxide, indium tin oxide, or polyethylene-dioxithiophene.

46. The method of claim 1, wherein the forming, coupling and converting steps are performed by or through a printing process.

47. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of substantially spherical lenses comprise borosilicate glass or polystyrene latex.

48. The method of claim 1, further comprising:

attaching an interface for insertion into a standardized lighting socket.

49. The method of claim 48, wherein the interface is compatible with an E12, E14, E26, E27, or GU-10 lighting standard.

50. The method of claim 48, wherein the interface is compatible with a standard Edison-type lighting socket.

51. The method of claim 48, wherein the interface is compatible with a standard fluorescent-type lighting socket.

52. A method of manufacturing an electronic apparatus, the method comprising:

forming at least one first conductor coupled to a base;

coupling a plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor;

subsequent to the coupling to the at least one first conductor, converting the plurality of substrate particles into a plurality of diodes;

forming at least one second conductor coupled to the plurality of substantially spherical diodes; and

depositing a plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in a first polymer, wherein the plurality of substantially spherical lenses have at least a first index of refraction and wherein the first polymer has at least a second, different index of refraction.

53. The method of claim 52, wherein a ratio of a mean diameter or length of the plurality of substantially spherical lenses to a mean diameter or length of the plurality of diodes is substantially about five to one (5:

1).

54. The method of claim 52, wherein a ratio of a mean diameter or length of the plurality of substantially spherical lenses to a mean diameter or length of the plurality of diodes is between about ten to one (10:

1) and two to one (2;

1)

55. The method of claim 52, wherein a mean diameter or length of the plurality of diodes is greater than about twenty (20) microns and less than about forty (40) microns.

56. The method of claim 52, wherein the plurality of diodes are semiconductor light emitting diodes, organic light emitting diodes, encapsulated organic light emitting diodes, polymer light emitting diodes, or photovoltaic diodes.

57. The method of claim 52, wherein the step of depositing a plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in a first polymer further comprises:

attaching a prefabricated layer to the plurality of diodes, the prefabricated layer comprising the plurality of substantially spherical lenses suspended in the first polymer.

58. The method of claim 52, wherein the plurality of substrate particles comprise gallium nitride, gallium arsenide, or silicon.

59. The method of claim 52, wherein the step of forming the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing a first conductive medium.

60. The method of claim 59, wherein the first conductive medium comprises at least one of the following media:

a silver conductive ink, a copper conductive ink, a gold conductive ink, an aluminum conductive ink, a tin conductive ink, a carbon conductive ink, a carbon nanotube polymer, or a conductive polymer.

61. The method of claim 59, wherein the step of depositing a first conductive medium comprises sputtering, coating, vapor depositing or electroplating a metal, a metal alloy, or a combination of metals.

62. The method of claim 61, wherein the metal, metal alloy, or combination of metals comprise at least one of the following:

aluminum, copper, silver, nickel, or gold.

63. The method of claim 59, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a reactive carrier medium;

removing the reactive carrier medium; and

curing or re-curing the first conductive medium.

64. The method of claim 52, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in an anisotropic conductive medium;

compressing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in the anisotropic conductive medium.

65. The method of claim 52, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a volatile carrier medium; and

evaporating the volatile carrier medium.

66. The method of claim 52, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a carrier medium; and

annealing or alloying the plurality of substrate particles to or with the at least one first conductor.

67. The method of claim 52, wherein each substrate particle of the plurality of substrate particles comprises a semiconductor and wherein the step of converting the plurality of substrate particles into the plurality of diodes further comprises:

forming a pn junction in each substrate particle by depositing a dopant material onto the plurality of substrate particles and annealing or alloying the dopant material with the plurality of substrate particles.

68. The method of claim 67, wherein the annealing or alloying is laser or thermal annealing or alloying.

69. The method of claim 67, wherein the dopant material is a substrate liquid or film or a dopant element or compound suspended in a carrier.

70. The method of claim 67, wherein the dopant material is deposited on a first, upper portion of the plurality of substrate particles to form the plurality of diodes and wherein about fifteen percent to fifty-five percent of a surface of each diode of substantially all of the plurality of diodes has a layer or region having a first majority carrier or dopant and the remaining diode substrate has a second majority carrier or dopant.

71. The method of claim 52, wherein the plurality of substrate particles comprise a first organic or polymer compound and wherein the step of converting the plurality of substrate particles into the plurality of diodes further comprises depositing a second organic or polymer compound onto the plurality of substrate particles.

72. The method of claim 52, further comprising:

depositing at least one third conductor over or within the at least one second conductor.

73. The method of claim 52, wherein the base further comprises a Bragg reflector or a reflective plastic or polyester coating.

74. The method of claim 52, wherein the base further comprises:

a plurality of substantially randomly distributed, substantially spherical conductors extending between a first side and a second side of the base and correspondingly coupled at the first side to the at least one first conductor; and

a conductive backplane coupled to the plurality of conductive vias and coupled to or integrated with the second side of the base.

75. The method of claim 52, further comprising:

depositing a plurality of inorganic dielectric particles suspended with a photoinitiator compound in a second polymer or resin to form at least one insulator coupled to the plurality of diodes.

76. The method of claim 52, wherein the step of forming the at least one second conductor further comprises:

depositing an optically transmissive conductor or conductive compound suspended in a polymer, resin or other media.

77. The method of claim 76, wherein the optically transmissive conductor or conductive compound suspended in a polymer, resin or other media further comprises at least one of the following:

carbon nanotubes, antimony tin oxide, indium tin oxide, or polyethylene-dioxithiophene.

78. The method of claim 52, wherein the plurality of substantially spherical lenses comprise borosilicate glass or polystyrene latex.

79. The method of claim 52, wherein the forming, coupling and converting steps are performed by or through a printing process.

80. The method of claim 52, further comprising:

attaching an interface for insertion into a standardized lighting socket.

81. The method of claim 80, wherein the interface is compatible with an E12, E14, E26, E27, or GU-10 lighting standard.

82. The method of claim 80, wherein the interface is compatible with a standard Edison-type lighting socket.

83. The method of claim 80, wherein the interface is compatible with a standard fluorescent-type lighting socket.

84. A method of manufacturing an electronic system, the method comprising:

forming at least one first conductor coupled to a base;

coupling a plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor;

converting the plurality of substrate particles into a plurality of substantially optically resonant diodes;

forming at least one second conductor coupled to the plurality of substantially optically resonant diodes;

depositing a plurality of lenses suspended in a first polymer, wherein the plurality of lenses have at least a first index of refraction and wherein the first polymer has at least a second, different index of refraction; and

attaching an interface for insertion into a standardized lighting socket.

85. The method of claim 84, wherein the plurality of substantially optically resonant diodes are substantially spherical, substantially toroidal, or substantially cylindrical.

86. The method of claim 84, wherein the plurality of diodes are semiconductor light emitting diodes, organic light emitting diodes, encapsulated organic light emitting diodes, polymer light emitting diodes, or photovoltaic diodes.

87. The method of claim 84, wherein the step of depositing a plurality of lenses suspended in a first polymer further comprises:

attaching a prefabricated layer to the plurality of optically resonant diodes, the prefabricated layer comprising the plurality of lenses suspended in the first polymer.

88. The method of claim 84, wherein the step of forming the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing a first conductive medium.

89. The method of claim 88, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a reactive carrier medium;

removing the reactive carrier medium; and

curing or re-curing the first conductive medium.

90. The method of claim 84, wherein the step of coupling the plurality of substrate particles to the at least one first conductor further comprises:

depositing the plurality of substrate particles suspended in a carrier medium; and

annealing the plurality of substrate particles to or with the at least one first conductor.

91. The method of claim 84, wherein each substrate particle of the plurality of substrate particles comprises a semiconductor and wherein the step of converting the plurality of substrate particles into the plurality of optically resonant diodes further comprises:

forming a pn junction in each substrate particle by depositing a dopant material onto the plurality of substrate particles and annealing or alloying the dopant material with the plurality of substrate particles.

92. The method of claim 84, further comprising:

depositing at least one third conductor over or within the at least one second conductor.

93. The method of claim 84, wherein the base further comprises:

a plurality of substantially randomly distributed, substantially spherical conductors extending between a first side and a second side of the base and correspondingly coupled at the first side to the at least one first conductor; and

a conductive backplane coupled to the plurality of conductive vias and coupled to or integrated with the second side of the base.

94. The method of claim 84, further comprising:

depositing a plurality of inorganic dielectric particles suspended with a photoinitiator compound in a second polymer or resin to form at least one insulator coupled to the plurality of optically resonant diodes.

95. The method of claim 84, wherein the plurality of substantially spherical lenses comprise borosilicate glass or polystyrene latex.

96. The method of claim 84, wherein the forming, coupling and converting steps are performed by or through a printing process.