BIOMASS PRODUCTION AND PROCESSING AND METHODS OF USE THEREOF

• US 20100240114A1
• Filed: 03/17/2010
• Published: 09/23/2010
• Est. Priority Date: 03/18/2009
• Status: Active Grant

• Current Assignee: Palmer Labs, LLC
• Original Assignee: Palmer Labs, LLC
• Inventors: Palmer, Miles, Reid, Bart R.
• Granted Patent: US 8,633,011 B2
• Time in Patent Office: Days
• US Class Current: 435/244
• CPC Class Codes: A01G 33/00 Cultivation of seaweed or algae
• CPC Class Codes: Y02A 40/22 Improving land use; Improving water use or availability; Controlling erosion

Abstract

The present invention provides methods and systems for the production of macroalgae in a manner to provide a sustained, economical source of biomass that may be used in various end-use processes, including energy production. The invention provides specific combinations of macroalgae types, saltwater growth medium compositions, and open pond water containers that results in biomass production beyond what may occur naturally without the required manipulation. Specifically, macroalgae that produce an exoskeleton in the presence of brackish water (e.g., stoneworts) have been found to provide excellent biomass production under the conditions of the invention.

Claims

1. A method of producing macroalgae comprising growing the macroalgae in an open pond system comprising a saltwater growth medium having a pH of at least about 7.5, a calcium content of at least about 500 mg/L, and a content of sodium and chlorine such that the ratio of the combination of sodium and chlorine to the calcium in the saltwater growth medium is greater than 0 but less than about 50.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in the order Charales.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in the family Characeae or Clavatoraceae.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in a genus selected from the group consisting of Aclistochara, Amblyochara, Amphorochara, Chara, Charites, Croftiella, Gobichara, Grambastichara, Grovesichara, Gyrogona, Harrisichara, Hornichara, Lamprothamnium, Lamprothamnus, Latochara, Lychnothamnus, Maedleriella, Maedlerisphaera, Mesochara, Microchara, Multispirochara, Nemegtichara, Neochara, Nitella, Nitellopsis, Nodosochara, Obtusochara, Peckichara, Peckisphaera, Piriformachara, Platychara, Raskyaechara, Sphaerochara, Stephanochara, Tectochara, Tolypella, and combinations thereof.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae is selected from the group consisting of Chara aculeolata, Chara alopecuroidea, Chara alopecuroides, Chara angarica, Chara arrudensis, Chara aspera, Chara asperula, Chara australis, Chara baltica, Chara batrachioides, Chara batrachosperma, Chara baueri, Chara benthamii, Chara bharadwajee, Chara biformis, Chara brachypus, Chara braunii, Chara bulbillifera, Chara canescens, Chara capillacea, Chara capillaris, Chara capitata, Chara ceratophylla, Chara chidamuensis, Chara columnaria, Chara congesta, Chara conimbrigensis, Chara connivens, Chara conniveti-fragilis, Chara contraria, Chara corallina, Chara coronata, Chara crassicaulis, Chara crinita, Chara curta, Chara delicatula, Chara denudata, Chara desmacantha, Chara dichopitys, Chara diffusa, Chara dissoluta, Chara distorta, Chara drummondii, Chara eboliangensis, Chara ecklonii, Chara elongata, chara equisetifolia, Chara escheri, Chara fallax, Chara fibrosa, Chara firma, Chara flexillis, Chara foetida, Chara foliolata, Chara fragifera, Chara fragilifera, Chara fragilis, Chara fulcrata, Chara galioides, Chara gelatinosa, Chara globularis, Chara glomerata, Chara gracilis, Chara gymnophylla, Chara gymnopitys, Chara gymnopus, Chara halina, Chara hansenii, Chara hedwigii, Chara heterophylla, Chara hirta, Chara hispida, Chara hookeri, Chara horrida, Chara huangii, Chara hyalina, Chara hydropytis, Chara imperfecta, Chara inconnexa, Chara inconspicua, Chara inflata, Chara intermedia, Chara intertexta, Chara intricata, Chara krausei, Chara leei, Chara leptopitys, Chara leptosperma, Chara leptospora, Chara lhotzkyi, Chara liljebladii, Chara longibracteata, Chara macropogon, Chara maior, Chara major, Chara microphylla, Chara mollusca, Chara montagnei, Chara mucronata, Chara muelleri, Chara muscosa, Chara myriophylla, Chara nolteana, Chara nuda, Chara obtuse, Chara oedophylla, Chara opaca, Chara pachyarthra, Chara palaeofragilis, Chara palaeohungarica, Chara papillata, Chara papulosa, Chara pedunculata, Chara plebeja, Chara polyacantha, Chara polycarpica, Chara polyphylla, Chara polysperma, Chara pouzolsii, Chara preissii, Chara prolifera, Chara psilopitys, Chara pulchella, Chara pusilla, Chara rabenhorstii, Chara refracta, Chara rudis, Chara rusbyana, Chara sadleri, Chara scoparia, Chara setosa, Chara spinescens, Chara squamosa, Chara stelligera, Chara stoechadum, Chara strigosa, Chara stuartiana, Chara submollusca, Chara subtillis, Chara succincta, Chara syncarpa, Chara tenuispina, Chara tenuissima, Chara tomentosa, Chara translucens, Chara trichophylla, Chara vandalurensis, Chara vasiformis, Chara virgata, Chara viridis, Chara visianii, Chara vulgaris, Chara wallichi, Chara wallrothii, Chara zeylanica, subspecies thereof, varieties thereof, forms thereof, and combinations thereof.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein the macroalgae is selected from the group consisting of Chara vulgaris f. contraria, Chara vulgaris var. refracta, Chara vulgaris f. paragymnophylla, Chara vulgaris f. subhispida, Chara vulgaris f. subinermis, Chara vulgaris var. gymnophylla, Chara vulgaris var. hispidula, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris, Chara vulgaris Linnaeus, Chara vulgaris var. montana, Chara vulgaris f. crispa, Chara vulgaris var. contraria, Chara vulgaris var. papillata, Chara vulgaris f. longibracteata, Chara vulgaris var. longibracteata, Chara vulgaris var. crassicaulis, Chara vulgaris var. denudata, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris f. crassicaulis, Chara vulgaris var. inconexa f. arrudensis, Chara vulgaris var. inconnexa, Chara vulgaris subsp. squamosa, Chara vulgaris f. hispidula, Chara vulgaris var. condensata, Chara vulgaris var. imperfecta, Chara vulgaris var. oedophylla, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris f. muscosa, and combinations thereof.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae is a soil-rooting species.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae that forms a calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton in the presence of sufficient calcium ions and carbonate ions.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae is a species recognized by one or more of the common names stonewort, brittlewort, muskgrass, and muskwort.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein the open pond system comprises soil having a pH of at least about 7.5.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the soil pH is at least about 8.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a pH of at least about 8.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein saltwater growth medium has a calcium content of at least about 700 mg/L.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a calcium content of at least about 1,000 mg/L.

15. The method of claim 1, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a sulfate content of at least about 1,000 mg/L.

16. The method of claim 1, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a nitrogen content of at least about 6 mg/L.

17. The method of claim 1, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a phosphorus content of at least about 0.5 mg/L.

18. The method of claim 1, wherein the saltwater growth medium has one or more of:

i. a sodium chloride content of about 3 g/L to about 70 g/L;

ii. a calcium content of about 500 mg/L to about 50 g/L;

iii. a sulfate content of about 1 g/L to about 16 g/L;

iv. a nitrogen content of about 6.25 mg/L to about 100 mg/L;

v. a silicon content of about 1.5 mg/L to about 24 mg/L;

vi. a phosphorus content of about 0.5 mg/L to about 8 mg/L; and

vii. an iron content of about 0.5 mg/L to about 8 mg/L.

19. The method of claim 18, wherein the saltwater growth medium includes the sodium chloride content, the calcium content, the sulfate content, and the phosphorus content.

20. The method of claim 1, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a total salinity of at least about 1% by weight.

21. The method of claim 20, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a total salinity of about 1.5% to about 15% by weight.

22. The method of claim 1, further comprising adding a hydroxide compound to the saltwater growth medium.

23. The method of claim 1, wherein said growing comprises forming a calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton on at least a portion of the external surface of the macroalgae such that the macroalgae comprise an organic plant portion and an inorganic calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton portion.

24. The method of claim 23, further comprising harvesting the macroalgae.

25. The method of claim 24, wherein the macroalgae comprises a rooting portion in contact with soil and wherein said harvesting comprises removing only a portion of the individual macroalgae plants leaving the rooting portion of the macroalgae in place in a majority of the individual plants.

26. The method of claim 24, wherein said harvesting comprising separating the upper portion of the macroalgae from the rooting portion of the macroalgae at some point below the surface of the saltwater growth medium.

27. The method of claim 24, wherein said harvesting comprises removing an average of about 10% to about 50% of the mass of the macroalgae.

28. The method of claim 24, wherein said harvesting is carried out when the average shading factor in the open pond system is about 25% to about 75%.

29. The method of claim 24, further comprising separating the calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton portion from the plant portion of the macroalgae.

30. The method of claim 29, comprising directing the plant portion of the macroalgae to an end-use process.

31. The method of claim 30, wherein said end-use process comprises one or more of an energy production process, a biofuel conversion process, a chemical compound conversion process, and a food or food supplement production process.

32. The method of claim 29, further comprising recycling at least a portion of the calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton into a saltwater growth medium in an open pond system growing macroalgae.

33. The method of claim 1, wherein the saltwater growth medium in the open pond system has a depth of at least about 2 feet.

34. The method of claim 33, wherein the saltwater growth medium in the open pond system has a depth of about 2 feet to about 8 feet.

35. The method of claim 1, wherein the open pond system further comprises light sensors interspaced therein.

36. The method of claim 35, comprising a least one light sensor located near the surface of the saltwater growth medium and at least one light sensor located near the bottom of the saltwater growth medium.

37. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae grow at a rate of at least about 5 g/m²/day.

38. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae grow at a rate of about 5 g/m²/day to about 135 g/m²/day.

39. The method of claim 1, wherein the macroalgae production is at least about 10 metric tons per acre per year

40. A method of producing macroalgae comprising:

(a) growing a soil-rooting, exoskeleton-forming macroalgae in an open pond system such that the macroalgae comprise an organic plant portion and an inorganic calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton portion;

(b) harvesting the macroalgae; and

(c) separating the exoskeleton portion from the plant portion of the macroalgae.

41. The method of claim 40, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in the order Charales.

42. The method of claim 41, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in the family Characeae or Clavatoraceae.

43. The method of claim 42, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in a genus selected from the group consisting of Aclistochara, Amblyochara, Amphorochara, Chara, Charites, Croftiella, Gobichara, Grambastichara, Grovesichara, Gyrogona, Harrisichara, Hornichara, Lamprothamnium, Lamprothamnus, Latochara, Lychnothamnus, Maedleriella, Maedlerisphaera, Mesochara, Microchara, Multispirochara, Nemegtichara, Neochara, Nitella, Nitellopsis, Nodosochara, Obtusochara, Peckichara, Peckisphaera, Piriformachara, Platychara, Raskyaechara, Sphaerochara, Stephanochara, Tectochara, Tolypella, and combinations thereof.

44. The method of claim 40, wherein the macroalgae is selected from the group consisting of Chara aculeolata, Chara alopecuroidea, Chara alopecuroides, Chara angarica, Chara arrudensis, Chara aspera, Chara asperula, Chara australis, Chara baltica, Chara batrachioides, Chara batrachosperma, Chara baueri, Chara benthamii, Chara bharadwajee, Chara biformis, Chara brachypus, Chara braunii, Chara bulbillifera, Chara canescens, Chara capillacea, Chara capillaris, Chara capitata, Chara ceratophylla, Chara chidamuensis, Chara columnaria, Chara congesta, Chara conimbrigensis, Chara connivens, Chara conniveti-fragilis, Chara contraria, Chara corallina, Chara coronata, Chara crassicaulis, Chara crinita, Chara curta, Chara delicatula, Chara denudata, Chara desmacantha, Chara dichopitys, Chara diffusa, Chara dissoluta, Chara distorta, Chara drummondii, Chara eboliangensis, Chara ecklonii, Chara elongata, chara equisetifolia, Chara escheri, Chara fallax, Chara fibrosa, Chara firma, Chara flexillis, Chara foetida, Chara foliolata, Chara fragifera, Chara fragilifera, Chara fragilis, Chara fulcrata, Chara galioides, Chara gelatinosa, Chara globularis, Chara glomerata, Chara gracilis, Chara gymnophylla, Chara gymnopitys, Chara gymnopus, Chara halina, Chara hansenii, Chara hedwigii, Chara heterophylla, Chara hirta, Chara hispida, Chara hookeri, Chara horrida, Chara huangii, Chara hyalina, Chara hydropytis, Chara imperfecta, Chara inconnexa, Chara inconspicua, Chara inflata, Chara intermedia, Chara intertexta, Chara intricata, Chara krausei, Chara leei, Chara leptopitys, Chara leptosperma, Chara leptospora, Chara lhotzkyi, Chara liljebladii, Chara longibracteata, Chara macropogon, Chara maior, Chara major, Chara microphylla, Chara mollusca, Chara montagnei, Chara mucronata, Chara muelleri, Chara muscosa, Chara myriophylla, Chara nolteana, Chara nuda, Chara obtuse, Chara oedophylla, Chara opaca, Chara pachyarthra, Chara palaeofragilis, Chara palaeohungarica, Chara papillata, Chara papulosa, Chara pedunculata, Chara plebeja, Chara polyacantha, Chara polycarpica, Chara polyphylla, Chara polysperma, Chara pouzolsii, Chara preissii, Chara prolifera, Chara psilopitys, Chara pulchella, Chara pusilla, Chara rabenhorstii, Chara refracta, Chara rudis, Chara rusbyana, Chara sadleri, Chara scoparia, Chara setosa, Chara spinescens, Chara squamosa, Chara stelligera, Chara stoechadum, Chara strigosa, Chara stuartiana, Chara submollusca, Chara subtillis, Chara succincta, Chara syncarpa, Chara tenuispina, Chara tenuissima, Chara tomentosa, Chara translucens, Chara trichophylla, Chara vandalurensis, Chara vasiformis, Chara virgata, Chara viridis, Chara visianii, Chara vulgaris, Chara wallichi, Chara wallrothii, Chara zeylanica, subspecies thereof, varieties thereof, forms thereof, and combinations thereof.

45. The method of claim 44, wherein the macroalgae is selected from the group consisting of Chara vulgaris f. contraria, Chara vulgaris var. refracta, Chara vulgaris f. paragymnophylla, Chara vulgaris f. subhispida, Chara vulgaris f. subinermis, Chara vulgaris var. gymnophylla, Chara vulgaris var. hispidula, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris, Chara vulgaris Linnaeus, Chara vulgaris var. montana, Chara vulgaris f. crispa, Chara vulgaris var. contraria, Chara vulgaris var. papillata, Chara vulgaris f. longibracteata, Chara vulgaris var. longibracteata, Chara vulgaris var. crassicaulis, Chara vulgaris var. denudata, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris f. crassicaulis, Chara vulgaris var. inconexa f. arrudensis, Chara vulgaris var. inconnexa, Chara vulgaris subsp. squamosa, Chara vulgaris f. hispidula, Chara vulgaris var. condensata, Chara vulgaris var. imperfecta, Chara vulgaris var. oedophylla, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris f. muscosa, and combinations thereof.

46. The method of claim 40, wherein the macroalgae is a species recognized by one or more of the common names stonewort, brittlewort, muskgrass, and muskwort.

47. The method of claim 40, wherein the open pond system comprises soil having a pH of at least about 7.5.

48. The method of claim 47, wherein the soil pH is at least about 8.

49. The method of claim 40, wherein the open pond system comprises a saltwater growth medium having a pH of at least about 7.5 and a calcium content of at least about 500 mg/L.

50. The method of claim 49, wherein the saltwater growth medium further has a content of sodium and chlorine such that the ratio of the combination of sodium and chlorine to the calcium in the saltwater growth medium is greater than 0 but less than about 50.

51. The method of claim 49, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a sulfate content of at least about 1,000 mg/L.

52. The method of claim 49, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a nitrogen content of at least about 6 mg/L.

53. The method of claim 49, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a phosphorus content of at least about 0.5 mg/L.

54. The method of claim 49, wherein the saltwater growth medium has one or more of:

i. a sodium chloride content of about 3 g/L to about 70 g/L;

ii. a calcium content of about 500 mg/L to about 50 g/L;

iii. a sulfate content of about 1 g/L to about 16 g/L;

iv. a nitrogen content of about 6.25 mg/L to about 100 mg/L;

v. a silicon content of about 1.5 mg/L to about 24 mg/L;

vi. a phosphorus content of about 0.5 mg/L to about 8 mg/L; and

vii. an iron content of about 0.5 mg/L to about 8 mg/L.

55. The method of claim 54, wherein the saltwater growth medium includes the sodium chloride content, the calcium content, the sulfate content, and the phosphorus content.

56. The method of claim 40, wherein the macroalgae comprises a rooting portion in contact with soil, and wherein said harvesting comprises removing only a portion of the individual macroalgae plants leaving the rooting portion of the macroalgae in place in a majority of the individual plants.

57. The method of claim 40, wherein said harvesting comprising separating the upper portion of the macroalgae from the rooting portion of the macroalgae at some point below the surface of the saltwater growth medium.

58. The method of claim 40, wherein said harvesting comprises removing an average of about 10% to about 50% of the mass of the macroalgae.

59. The method of claim 40, wherein said harvesting is carried out when the average shading factor in the open pond system is about 25% to about 75%.

60. The method of claim 40, comprising directing the plant portion of the macroalgae to an end-use process.

61. The method of claim 60, wherein said end-use process comprises one or more of an energy production process, a biofuel conversion process, a chemical compound conversion process, and a food or food supplement production process.

62. The method of claim 40, further comprising recycling at least a portion of the calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton into a saltwater growth medium in an open pond system growing macroalgae.

63. The method of claim 40, wherein the macroalgae grow at a rate of at least about 5 g/m²/day.

64. The method of claim 40, wherein the macroalgae grow at a rate of about 5 g/m²/day to about 135 g/m²/day.

65. The method of claim 40, wherein the macroalgae production is at least about 10 metric tons per acre per year

66. A macroalgae production system comprising:

a saltwater growth medium container having therein a soil component having a pH of at least about 7.5;

actively growing macroalgae at least partially rooted in the soil component; and

a saltwater growth medium having a pH of at least about 7.5, a calcium content of at least about 500 mg/L, and a content of sodium and chlorine such that the ratio of the combination of sodium and chlorine to the calcium in the saltwater growth medium is greater than 0 but less than about 50.

67. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the actively growing macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in the order Charales.

68. The macroalgae production system of claim 67, wherein the actively growing macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in the family Characeae or Clavatoraceae.

69. The macroalgae production system of claim 68, wherein the actively growing macroalgae is a macroalgae classified in a genus selected from the group consisting of Aclistochara, Amblyochara, Amphorochara, Chara, Charites, Croftiella, Gobichara, Grambastichara, Grovesichara, Gyrogona, Harrisichara, Hornichara, Lamprothamnium, Lamprothamnus, Latochara, Lychnothamnus, Maedleriella, Maedlerisphaera, Mesochara, Microchara, Multispirochara, Nemegtichara, Neochara, Nitella, Nitellopsis, Nodosochara, Obtusochara, Peckichara, Peckisphaera, Piriformachara, Platychara, Raskyaechara, Sphaerochara, Stephanochara, Tectochara, Tolypella, and combinations thereof.

70. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the actively growing macroalgae is selected from the group consisting of Chara aculeolata, Chara alopecuroidea, Chara alopecuroides, Chara angarica, Chara arrudensis, Chara aspera, Chara asperula, Chara australis, Chara baltica, Chara batrachioides, Chara batrachosperma, Chara baueri, Chara benthamii, Chara bharadwajee, Chara biformis, Chara brachypus, Chara braunii, Chara bulbillifera, Chara canescens, Chara capillacea, Chara capillaris, Chara capitata, Chara ceratophylla, Chara chidamuensis, Chara columnaria, Chara congesta, Chara conimbrigensis, Chara connivens, Chara conniveti-fragilis, Chara contraria, Chara corallina, Chara coronata, Chara crassicaulis, Chara crinita, Chara curta, Chara delicatula, Chara denudata, Chara desmacantha, Chara dichopitys, Chara diffusa, Chara dissoluta, Chara distorta, Chara drummondii, Chara eboliangensis, Chara ecklonii, Chara elongata, chara equisetifolia, Chara escheri, Chara fallax, Chara fibrosa, Chara firma, Chara flexillis, Chara foetida, Chara foliolata, Chara fragifera, Chara fragilifera, Chara fragilis, Chara fulcrata, Chara galioides, Chara gelatinosa, Chara globularis, Chara glomerata, Chara gracilis, Chara gymnophylla, Chara gymnopitys, Chara gymnopus, Chara halina, Chara hansenii, Chara hedwigii, Chara heterophylla, Chara hirta, Chara hispida, Chara hookeri, Chara horrida, Chara huangii, Chara hyalina, Chara hydropytis, Chara imperfecta, Chara inconnexa, Chara inconspicua, Chara inflata, Chara intermedia, Chara intertexta, Chara intricata, Chara krausei, Chara leei, Chara leptopitys, Chara leptosperma, Chara leptospora, Chara lhotzkyi, Chara liljebladii, Chara longibracteata, Chara macropogon, Chara maior, Chara major, Chara microphylla, Chara mollusca, Chara montagnei, Chara mucronata, Chara muelleri, Chara muscosa, Chara myriophylla, Chara nolteana, Chara nuda, Chara obtuse, Chara oedophylla, Chara opaca, Chara pachyarthra, Chara palaeofragilis, Chara palaeohungarica, Chara papillata, Chara papulosa, Chara pedunculata, Chara plebeja, Chara polyacantha, Chara polycarpica, Chara polyphylla, Chara polysperma, Chara pouzolsii, Chara preissii, Chara prolifera, Chara psilopitys, Chara pulchella, Chara pusilla, Chara rabenhorstii, Chara refracta, Chara rudis, Chara rusbyana, Chara sadleri, Chara scoparia, Chara setosa, Chara spinescens, Chara squamosa, Chara stelligera, Chara stoechadum, Chara strigosa, Chara stuartiana, Chara submollusca, Chara subtillis, Chara succincta, Chara syncarpa, Chara tenuispina, Chara tenuissima, Chara tomentosa, Chara translucens, Chara trichophylla, Chara vandalurensis, Chara vasiformis, Chara virgata, Chara viridis, Chara visianii, Chara vulgaris, Chara wallichi, Chara wallrothii, Chara zeylanica, subspecies thereof, varieties thereof, forms thereof, and combinations thereof.

71. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the actively growing macroalgae is selected from the group consisting of Chara vulgaris f. contraria, Chara vulgaris var. refracta, Chara vulgaris f. paragymnophylla, Chara vulgaris f. subhispida, Chara vulgaris f. subinermis, Chara vulgaris var. gymnophylla, Chara vulgaris var. hispidula, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris, Chara vulgaris Linnaeus, Chara vulgaris var. montana, Chara vulgaris f. crispa, Chara vulgaris var. contraria, Chara vulgaris var. papillata, Chara vulgaris f. longibracteata, Chara vulgaris var. longibracteata, Chara vulgaris var. crassicaulis, Chara vulgaris var. denudata, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris f. crassicaulis, Chara vulgaris var. inconexa f. arrudensis, Chara vulgaris var. inconnexa, Chara vulgaris subsp. squamosa, Chara vulgaris f. hispidula, Chara vulgaris var. condensata, Chara vulgaris var. imperfecta, Chara vulgaris var. oedophylla, Chara vulgaris var. vulgaris f. muscosa, and combinations thereof.

72. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the macroalgae is a macroalgae that forms a calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton in the presence of sufficient calcium ions and carbonate ions.

73. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the macroalgae is a species recognized by one or more of the common names stonewort, brittlewort, muskgrass, and muskwort.

74. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the soil pH is at least about 8.

75. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a pH of at least about 8.

76. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein saltwater growth medium has a calcium content of at least about 700 mg/L.

77. The macroalgae production system of claim 76, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a calcium content of at least about 1,000 mg/L.

78. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a sulfate content of at least about 1,000 mg/L.

79. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a nitrogen content of at least about 6 mg/L.

80. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a phosphorus content of at least about 0.5 mg/L.

81. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the saltwater growth medium has one or more of:

i. a sodium chloride content of about 3 g/L to about 70 g/L;

ii. a calcium content of about 500 mg/L to about 50 g/L;

iii. a sulfate content of about 1 g/L to about 16 g/L;

iv. a nitrogen content of about 6.25 mg/L to about 100 mg/L;

v. a silicon content of about 1.5 mg/L to about 24 mg/L;

vi. a phosphorus content of about 0.5 mg/L to about 8 mg/L; and

vii. an iron content of about 0.5 mg/L to about 8 mg/L.

82. The macroalgae production system of claim 81, wherein the saltwater growth medium includes the sodium chloride content, the calcium content, the sulfate content, and the phosphorus content.

83. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a total salinity of at least about 1% by weight.

84. The macroalgae production system of claim 83, wherein the saltwater growth medium has a total salinity of about 1.5% to about 15% by weight.

85. The macroalgae production system of claim 66, wherein the saltwater growth medium in the container has a depth of at least about 2 feet.

86. The macroalgae production system of claim 85, wherein the saltwater growth medium in the container has a depth of about 2 feet to about 8 feet.

87. The macroalgae production system of claim 67, wherein the macroalgae production system further comprises light sensors interspaced within the saltwater growth medium container.

88. The macroalgae production system of claim 87, comprising a least one light sensor located near the surface of the saltwater growth medium and at least one light sensor located near the bottom of the saltwater growth medium.

89. The macroalgae production system of claim 67, further comprising a macroalgae harvesting device that separates an upper portion of the actively macroalgae from a rooting portion of the macroalgae at some point below the surface of the saltwater growth medium.

90. The macroalgae production system of claim 67, further comprising a separator for separating any calcium carbonate-containing exoskeleton on the external surface of the macroalgae from the plant portion of the macroalgae.