Optical-based sensing devices, especially for in-situ sensing in humans

• US 6,304,766 B1
• Filed: 08/26/1998
• Issued: 10/16/2001
• Est. Priority Date: 08/26/1998
• Status: Expired due to Term

• Current Assignee: Sensors For Medicine and Science Incorporated
• Original Assignee: Sensors For Medicine and Science Incorporated
• Inventors: Colvin, Arthur E. Jr.
• Primary Examiner(s): WINAKUR, ERIC FRANK
• Application Number:
  US09/140,747
• Time in Patent Office: 1,147 Days
• Field of Search: 600/310, 600/316, 600/317, 600/322, 600/342, 600/343, 600/473, 600/476, 128/503
• US Class Current: 600/317
• CPC Class Codes: A61B 5/0031 Implanted circuitry
• CPC Class Codes: A61B 5/14532 for measuring glucose, e.g. by tissue impedance measurement
• CPC Class Codes: A61B 5/14552 Details of sensors specially adapted therefor
• CPC Class Codes: A61B 5/1459 invasive, e.g. introduced into the body by a catheter A61B5/1464 takes precedence
• CPC Class Codes: G01N 21/552 Attenuated total reflection
• CPC Class Codes: G01N 21/648 using evanescent coupling or surface plasmon coupling for the excitation of fluorescence
• CPC Class Codes: G01N 21/7703 using reagent-clad optical fibres or optical waveguides using measurement of total internal reflection or attenuated total reflection G01N21/552; optical fibres or waveguides per se G02B
• CPC Class Codes: Y10S 128/903 Radio telemetry

Abstract

An optical-based sensor for detecting the presence or amount of an analyte. The sensor has a sensor body which functions as a wave guide, with a source of radiation embedded therein. Radiation emitted by the source interacts with indicator molecules on the surface of the body. At least one optical characteristics of the indicator molecules varies with analyte concentration. For example, the level of fluorescence of fluorescent indicator molecules or the amount of light absorbed by light-absorbing indicator molecules vary as a function of analyte concentration. Radiation (light) emitted or reflected by the indicator molecules enters and is internally reflected throughout the sensor body. A photosensitive element embedded within the sensor body generates a signal indicative of the level of internally reflected radiation and, hence, the concentration of the analyte. Preferred embodiments are totally self-contained and are sized and shaped for use in vivo in a human being. Such embodiments further include a power source, e.g. an inductor, which powers the source of radiation using external means, as well as a transmitter, e.g. an inductor, to transmit to external pickup means the signal representing the level of analyte.

Claims

1. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body having a surface;

a radiation source which emits radiation, said radiation source being embedded within said sensor body such that radiation emitted by said source travels within said sensor body;

fluorescent indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said indicator molecules emitting fluorescent light in response to radiation emitted by the radiation source, the level of fluorescence varying with the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed; and

a photosensitive element which is responsive to fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules, said photosensitive element being embedded within said sensor body;

wherein radiation emitted by said source passes out of said sensor body, at least some of the radiation passing out of said sensor body being reflected internally within said sensor body before passing out of said sensor body;

wherein said indicator molecules fluoresce in response to radiation emitted by said source which passes out of said sensor body; and

wherein at least some of the fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules passes into said sensor body and is detected by said photosensitive element, at least some of the fluorescent light detected by said photosensitive element being reflected internally within said sensor body before striking said photosensitive element.

2. The sensor of claim 1, wherein said indicator molecules are disposed within a matrix layer coated on the surface of said sensor body, said matrix layer being permeable to the analyte and said matrix layer permitting radiation emitted by the radiation source to enter therein.

3. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising a filter which allows fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules and passing into said sensor body to strike said photosensitive element, said filter substantially preventing radiation emitted by said source from striking said photosensitive element.

4. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising a power source which powers said radiation source to cause said radiation source to emit radiation, said power source being embedded within said sensor body.

5. The sensor of claim 4, wherein said power source comprises an inductor and said radiation source is caused to emit radiation by exposing the sensor to a field of electromagnetic radiation that is generated exterior to said sensor body.

6. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body, said transmitter transmitting from within said sensor body to the exterior of said sensor body a signal indicative of the concentration of the analyte.

7. The sensor of claim 6, wherein said transmitter comprises an inductor which generates a field of electromagnetic radiation that is detectable by a signal pickup device that is located exterior to said sensor body.

8. The sensor of claim 4, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body, said transmitter transmitting from within said sensor body to the exterior of said sensor body a signal indicative of the concentration of the analyte.

9. The sensor of claim 8, wherein said embedded power source powers both said radiation source and said transmitter.

10. The sensor of claim 1, wherein said sensor has an oblong, rounded shape whereby said sensor can be disposed within the body of a living human.

11. The sensor of claim 10, wherein said sensor has an overall length of approximately 500 microns to approximately 0.5 inch and a diameter of approximately 300 microns to approximately 0.3 inch.

12. The sensor of claim 1, wherein the level of fluorescence of said indicator molecules varies as a function of the concentration of oxygen.

13. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising a tissue/sensor interface layer disposed over said indicator molecules, said tissue/sensor interface layer being permeable to the analyte.

14. The sensor of claim 13, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer retards formation of fibrotic encapsulation or scar tissue.

15. The sensor of claim 13, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer comprises a sublayer which promotes tissue ingrowth therein.

16. The sensor of claim 15, wherein said tissue ingrowth comprises vascularization.

17. The sensor of claim 13, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer comprises a molecular sieve sublayer which performs a molecular weight cutoff function.

18. The sensor of claim 13, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer is selectively permeable so as to permit said analyte to contact said indicator molecules while preventing cells or macromolecules from contacting said indicator molecules.

19. The sensor of claim 13, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer is biocompatible.

20. The sensor of claim 1, further comprising a reflection enhancement layer disposed over a portion of the surface of said sensor body to enhance reflection within said sensor body of radiation emitted by said source and/or fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules and passing into said sensor body.

21. The sensor of claim 1, wherein said radiation source comprises a light-emitting diode.

22. The sensor of claim 1, wherein said radiation source comprises a radioluminescent light source.

23. The sensor of claim 1, wherein said indicator molecules interact with the radiation emitted by said radiation source by means of evanescent excitation.

24. The sensor of claim 1, wherein said indicator molecules interact with the radiation emitted by said radiation source by means of surface plasmon resonance-type excitation.

25. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

a sensor body having a surface;

a matrix layer disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said matrix layer being permeable to the analyte and comprising fluorescent indicator molecules which fluoresce in response to radiation, the level of fluorescence being a function of the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed, said matrix layer permitting radiation with which said indicator molecules interact to enter therein;

a radiation source which emits radiation that causes said indicator molecules to fluoresce, said radiation source being disposed such that radiation emitted thereby passes from said sensor body into said matrix layer and causes said indicator molecules to fluoresce; and

a photosensitive element which senses fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules and disposed so as to detect such emitted fluorescent light, said photosensitive element configured to provide a response signal indicative of the amount of such detected fluorescent light and hence the presence or concentration of said analyte.

26. The sensor of claim 25, wherein said sensor has an oblong, rounded shape with an overall length of approximately 500 microns to approximately 0.5 inch and a diameter of approximately 300 microns to approximately 0.3 inch, whereby said sensor can be disposed within the body of a living human without causing excessive or intolerable levels of discomfort.

27. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body having a surface;

fluorescent indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said indicator molecules fluorescing in response to radiation, the level of fluorescence being a function of the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed;

a radiation source which emits radiation that causes said indicator molecules to fluoresce, said radiation source being disposed such that radiation emitted thereby strikes said indicator molecules; and

a photosensitive element disposed so as to detect fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules, said photosensitive element configured to provide a response signal indicative of the amount of fluorescent light detected thereby and hence the presence or concentration of said analyte;

said sensor further comprising a power source embedded within said sensor body, said power source powering said radiation source to cause said radiation source to emit radiation.

a photosensitive element disposed so as to detect fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules, said photosensitive element configured to provide a response signal indicative of the amount of fluorescent light detected thereby and hence the presence or concentration of said analyte;

said sensor further comprising a power source embedded within said sensor body, said power source powering said radiation source to cause said radiation source to emit radiation.

28. The sensor of claim 27, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body which transmits a signal indicative of the level of fluorescent light detected by said photosensitive element.

29. The sensor of claim 28, wherein said embedded power source powers both said radiation source and said transmitter.

30. The sensor of claim 27, wherein said power source comprises an inductor whereby said radiation source is caused to emit radiation by exposing said sensor to a field of electromagnetic radiation generated exterior to said sensor body.

31. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body having a surface;

fluorescent indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said indicator molecules fluorescing in response to radiation, the level of fluorescence being a function of the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed;

a radiation source which emits radiation that causes said indicator molecules to fluoresce, said radiation source being disposed such that radiation emitted thereby strikes said indicator molecules; and

a photosensitive element disposed so as to detect fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules;

said sensor further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body which transmits a signal indicative of the level of fluorescent light detected by said photosensitive element and hence the presence or concentration of said analyte.

32. The sensor of claim 31, wherein said transmitter comprises an inductor which generates a field of electromagnetic radiation that is detectable by a signal pickup device that is located exterior to said sensor body.

33. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body having a surface;

a radiation source which emits radiation, said radiation source being embedded within said sensor body such that radiation emitted by said source travels within said sensor body;

radiation-absorbing indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said indicator molecules absorbing radiation emitted by said radiation source, the level of absorption varying with the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed; and

a photosensitive element which is responsive to radiation emitted by said radiation source, said photosensitive element being embedded within said sensor body;

wherein radiation emitted by said source passes out of said sensor body, at least some of the radiation passing out of said sensor body being reflected internally within said sensor body before passing out of said sensor body;

wherein said indicator molecules absorb at least some of the radiation emitted by said source and passing out of said sensor body and at least some non-absorbed radiation passes back into said sensor body; and

wherein at least some of said non-absorbed radiation passing back into said sensor body is detected by said photosensitive element, at least some of the non-absorbed radiation detected by said photosensitive element being reflected internally within said sensor body before striking said photosensitive element.

34. The sensor of claim 33, wherein said indicator molecules are disposed within a matrix layer coated on the surface of the sensor body, said matrix layer being permeable to the analyte and said matrix layer permitting radiation emitted by the radiation source to enter therein.

35. The sensor of claim 33, further comprising a filter which allows radiation emitted by said source and at a wavelength absorbed by said indicator molecules to strike said photosensitive element and which substantially prevents radiation emitted by said source and not at a wavelength absorbed by said indicator molecules from striking said photosensitive element.

36. The sensor of claim 33, further comprising a power source which powers said radiation source to cause said radiation source to emit radiation, said power source being embedded within said sensor body.

37. The sensor of claim 36, wherein said power source comprises an inductor and said radiation source is caused to emit radiation by exposing the sensor to a field of electromagnetic radiation that is generated exterior to said sensor body.

38. The sensor of claim 36, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body, said transmitter transmitting from within said sensor body to the exterior of said sensor body a signal indicative of the concentration of the analyte.

39. The sensor of claim 38, wherein said embedded power source powers both said radiation source and said transmitter.

40. The sensor of claim 33, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body, said transmitter transmitting from within said sensor body to the exterior of said sensor body a signal indicative of the concentration of the analyte.

41. The sensor of claim 40, wherein said transmitter comprises an inductor which generates a field of electromagnetic radiation that is detectable by a signal pickup device that is located exterior to said sensor body.

42. The sensor of claim 33, wherein said sensor has an oblong, rounded shape whereby said sensor can be disposed within the body of a living human.

43. The sensor of claim 42, wherein said sensor has an overall length of approximately 500 microns to approximately 0.5 inch and a diameter of approximately 300 microns to approximately 0.3 inch.

44. The sensor of claim 33, wherein the level of absorption of said indicator molecules varies as a function of the concentration of glucose.

45. The sensor of claim 33, further comprising a tissue/sensor interface layer disposed over said indicator molecules, said tissue/sensor interface layer being permeable to the analyte.

46. The sensor of claim 45, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer retards formation of fibrotic encapsulation or scar tissue.

47. The sensor of claim 45, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer comprises a sublayer which promotes tissue ingrowth therein.

48. The sensor of claim 47, wherein said tissue ingrowth comprises vascularization.

49. The sensor of claim 45, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer comprises a molecular sieve sublayer which performs a molecular weight cutoff function.

50. The sensor of claim 45, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer is selectively permeable so as to permit said analyte to contact said indicator molecules while preventing cells or macromolecules from contacting said indicator molecules.

51. The sensor of claim 45, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer is biocompatible.

52. The sensor of claim 33, further comprising a reflection enhancement layer disposed over a portion of the surface of said sensor body to enhance reflection within said sensor body of radiation emitted by said source.

53. The sensor of claim 33, wherein said radiation source comprises a light-emitting diode.

54. The sensor of claim 33, wherein said radiation source comprises a radioluminescent light source.

55. The sensor of claim 33, wherein said indicator molecules interact with the radiation emitted by said radiation source by means of evanescent excitation.

56. The sensor of claim 33, wherein said indicator molecules interact with the radiation emitted by said radiation source by means of surface plasmon resonance-type excitation.

57. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

a sensor body having a surface;

a matrix layer disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said matrix layer being permeable to the analyte and comprising indicator molecules which absorb radiation, the level of absorption being a function of the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed, said matrix layer permitting radiation which said indicator molecules absorb to enter therein;

a radiation source which emits radiation that is absorbed by said indicator molecules, said radiation source being disposed such that radiation emitted thereby enters said matrix layer and is absorbed by said indicator molecules; and

a photosensitive element which detects radiation emitted by said radiation source and disposed so as to detect radiation emitted by said radiation source and not absorbed by said indicator molecules, said photosensitive element configured to provide a response signal indicative of the amount of such detected non-absorbed radiation and hence the presence or concentration of said analyte.

58. The sensor of claim 57, wherein said sensor has an oblong, rounded shape with an overall length of approximately 500 microns to approximately 0.5 inch and a diameter of approximately 300 microns to approximately 0.3 inch, whereby said sensor can be disposed within the body of a living human without causing excessive or intolerable levels of discomfort.

59. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

a sensor body having a surface;

radiation-absorbing indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, the level of absorption being a function of the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed;

a radiation source which emits radiation that is absorbed by said indicator molecules, said radiation source being disposed such that radiation emitted thereby is absorbed by said indicator molecules; and

a photosensitive element which detects radiation emitted by said radiation source, said photosensitive element disposed so as to detect radiation emitted by said radiation source and not absorbed by said indicator molecules, said photosensitive element configured to provide a response signal indicative of the amount of non-absorbed radiation detected thereby and hence the presence or concentration of said analyte;

said sensor further comprising a power source embedded within said sensor body, said power source powering said radiation source to cause said radiation source to emit radiation.

60. The sensor of claim 59, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body which transmits a signal indicative of the level of non-absorbed radiation detected by said photosensitive element.

61. The sensor of claim 60, wherein said embedded power source powers both said radiation source and said transmitter.

62. The sensor of claim 59, wherein said power source comprises an inductor whereby said radiation source is caused to emit radiation by exposing said sensor to a field of electromagnetic radiation generated exterior to said sensor body.

63. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

a sensor body having a surface;

radiation-absorbing indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, the level of absorption being a function of the concentration of the analyte to which said indicator molecules are exposed;

a radiation source which emits radiation that is absorbed by said indicator molecules, said radiation source being disposed such that radiation emitted thereby is absorbed by said indicator molecules; and

a photosensitive element which detects radiation emitted by said radiation source, said photosensitive element disposed so as to detect radiation emitted by said radiation source and not absorbed by said indicator molecules;

said sensor further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body which transmits a signal indicative of the level of radiation detected by said photosensitive element and hence the presence or concentration of said analyte.

64. The sensor of claim 63, wherein said transmitter comprises an inductor which generates a field of electromagnetic radiation that is detectable by a signal pickup device that is located exterior to said sensor body.

65. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of a plurality of analytes in a medium, said sensor comprising:

an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body having a surface;

first and second indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said first indicator molecules having an optical characteristic that is responsive to changes in the concentration of a first analyte to which said first indicator molecules are exposed and said second indicator molecules having an optical characteristic that is responsive to changes in the concentration of a second analyte to which said second indicator molecules are exposed;

a radiation source which emits radiation that interacts with said first indicator molecules in accordance with the analyte-responsive optical characteristic thereof and a radiation source which emits radiation that interacts with said second indicator molecules in accordance with the analyte-responsive optical characteristic thereof, said radiation source or sources being embedded within said sensor body such that radiation emitted thereby travels within said sensor body; and

first and second photosensitive elements embedded within said sensor body, said first photosensitive element providing a response signal indicative of the level of interaction of said first indicator molecules with radiation interacting therewith and hence indicative of the presence or concentration of said first analyte, and said second photosensitive element providing a response signal indicative of the level of interaction of said second indicator molecules with radiation interacting therewith and hence indicative of the presence or concentration of said second analyte.

66. The sensor of claim 65, wherein the optical characteristic of said first indicator molecules which is responsive to changes in the concentration of said first analyte is the same as the optical characteristic of said second indicator molecules which is responsive to changes in the concentration of said second analyte.

67. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said sensor comprising:

an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body having a surface;

first and second indicator molecules disposed on the surface of said sensor body, said first indicator molecules having a first optical characteristic that is responsive to changes in the concentration of said analyte and said second indicator molecules having a second optical characteristic that is responsive to changes in the concentration of said analyte, said first and second optical characteristics being different from each other;

a radiation source which emits radiation that interacts with said first indicator molecules in accordance with the first, analyte-responsive optical characteristic thereof and a radiation source which emits radiation that interacts with said second indicator molecules in accordance with the second, analyte-responsive optical characteristic thereof, said radiation source or sources being embedded within said sensor body such that radiation emitted thereby travels within said sensor body; and

first and second photosensitive elements embedded within said sensor body, said first photosensitive element providing a response signal indicative of the level of interaction of said first indicator molecules with radiation interacting therewith and hence indicative of the presence or concentration of said analyte, and said second photosensitive element providing a response signal indicative of the level of interaction of said second indicator molecules with radiation interacting therewith and hence indicative of the presence or concentration of said analyte;

whereby the presence or concentration of said analyte can be determined with a single sensor employing a plurality of transduction schema.

68. An optical-based sensor for determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said medium having a first refractive index which varies as a function of the concentration of said analyte in said medium, said sensor comprising:

an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body having a second refractive index and a surface;

a radiation source which emits radiation, said radiation source being embedded within said sensor body such that radiation emitted by said source travels within said sensor body; and

a photosensitive element which is responsive to radiation emitted by said radiation source, said photosensitive element being embedded within said sensor body;

wherein an amount of radiation emitted by said source passes out of said sensor body, the amount of radiation passing out of said sensor body varying as a function of the ratio of said first and second refractive indices and hence as a function of the concentration of said analyte in said medium, at least some of the radiation passing out of said sensor body being reflected internally within said sensor body before passing out of said sensor body; and

wherein radiation not passing out of said sensor body is detected by said photosensitive element, at least some of the non-exiting radiation detected by said photosensitive element being reflected internally within said sensor body before striking said photosensitive element.

69. The sensor of claim 68, further comprising a power source which powers said radiation source to cause said radiation source to emit radiation, said power source being embedded within said sensor body.

70. The sensor of claim 69, wherein said power source comprises an inductor and said radiation source is caused to emit radiation by exposing the sensor to a field of electromagnetic radiation that is generated exterior to said sensor body.

71. The sensor of claim 68, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body, said transmitter transmitting from within said sensor body to the exterior of said sensor body a signal indicative of the concentration of the analyte.

72. The sensor of claim 71, wherein said transmitter comprises an inductor which generates a field of electromagnetic radiation that is detectable by a signal pickup device that is located exterior to said sensor body.

73. The sensor of claim 69, further comprising a transmitter embedded within said sensor body, said transmitter transmitting from within said sensor body to the exterior of said sensor body a signal indicative of the concentration of the analyte.

74. The sensor of claim 73, wherein said embedded power source powers both said radiation source and said transmitter.

75. The sensor of claim 68, wherein said sensor has an oblong, rounded shape whereby said sensor can be disposed within the body of a living human.

76. The sensor of claim 75, wherein said sensor has an overall length of approximately 500 microns to approximately 0.5 inch and a diameter of approximately 300 microns to approximately 0.3 inch.

77. The sensor of claim 68, further comprising a tissue/sensor interface layer disposed over the surface of said sensor body, said tissue/sensor interface layer being permeable to the analyte.

78. The sensor of claim 77, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer retards formation of fibrotic encapsulation or scar tissue.

79. The sensor of claim 77, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer comprises a sublayer which promotes tissue ingrowth therein.

80. The sensor of claim 79, wherein said tissue ingrowth comprises vascularization.

81. The sensor of claim 77, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer comprises a molecular sieve sublayer which performs a molecular weight cutoff function.

82. The sensor of claim 77, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer is selectively permeable so as to permit said analyte-containing medium to contact said surface while preventing cells or macromolecules from contacting said surface.

83. The sensor of claim 77, wherein said tissue/sensor interface layer is biocompatible.

84. The sensor of claim 68, further comprising a reflection enhancement layer disposed over a portion of the surface of said sensor body to enhance reflection within said sensor body of radiation emitted by said source.

85. The sensor of claim 68, wherein said radiation source comprises a light-emitting diode.

86. The sensor of claim 68, wherein said radiation source comprises a radioluminescent light source.

87. A method of determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said method comprising the steps of

disposing a sensor in the medium, said sensor comprising an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor body further comprising a source of radiation and a photosensitive element both embedded therein and indicator molecules disposed on a surface thereof, the indicator molecules fluorescing in response to radiation emitted by the source and the level of fluorescence varying with the presence or concentration of the analyte;

causing the source to emit radiation and internally illuminate the sensor body, radiation emitted by the source causing said indicator molecules to fluoresce and fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules passing into said sensor body;

detecting fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules and passing into said sensor body with said photosensitive element; and

providing a response signal indicative of the level of fluorescent light detected by the photosensitive element and hence indicative of the presence or concentration of the analyte in the medium.

88. The method of claim 87, further comprising transmitting a signal indicative of the presence or concentration of analyte in the medium.

89. The method of claim 87, further comprising causing said source of radiation to emit radiation by means exterior to said sensor.

90. A method of determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium, said method comprising the steps of

disposing a sensor in the medium, said sensor comprising a sensor body with a source that emits radiation and a photosensitive element both embedded therein and indicator molecules disposed on a surface thereof, the indicator molecules absorbing at least some of the radiation emitted by the source and passing out of the sensor body and at least some of the radiation emitted by the source not being absorbed and being reflected back into the sensor body, the level of absorbance varying with the presence or concentration of the analyte;

causing the source to emit radiation and internally illuminate the sensor body, at least some of the radiation emitted by the source passing out of the sensor body and either being absorbed by the indicator molecules or being reflected back into the sensor body;

detecting radiation emitted by said source, passing out of said sensor body and not being absorbed by said indicator molecules, and passing back into said sensor body with said photosensitive element; and

providing a response signal indicative of the level of radiation detected by the photosensitive element and hence indicative of the presence or concentration of the analyte in the medium.

91. The method of claim 90, further comprising transmitting a signal indicative of the presence or concentration of analyte in the medium.

92. The method of claim 90, further comprising causing said source of radiation to emit radiation by means exterior to said sensor.

93. A method of determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in vivo in a human subject, said method comprising the steps of

inserting a sensor into the subject in a location of interest, said sensor comprising a fluorescence-based sensor which emits radiation and which has indicator molecules that fluoresce in response to said radiation, the level of fluorescence of said indicator molecules varying with the presence or concentration of said analyte, said sensor further comprising an optically transmissive sensor body which functions as an optic wave guide, said sensor further comprising a source a photosensitive element which senses fluorescent light emitted by said indicator molecules and which provides a response signal indicative of the level of fluorescence of said indicator molecules;

causing said sensor to emit radiation using means wholly exterior to the body of said subject; and

detecting said signal indicative of the level of fluorescence of said indicator molecules using means wholly exterior to the body of said subject and determining the presence or concentration of the analyte therefrom.

94. A method of determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in vivo in a human subject, said method comprising the steps of

inserting a sensor into the subject in a location of interest, said sensor comprising an absorbance-based sensor which emits radiation and which has indicator molecules that absorb at least some of said emitted radiation, the level of absorbance varying with the presence or concentration of said analyte, said sensor further comprising a photosensitive element which senses radiation not absorbed by said indicator molecules and which provides a response signal indicative of the level of sensed radiation;

causing said sensor to emit radiation using means wholly exterior to the body of said subject; and

detecting said signal indicative of the level of sensed radiation using means wholly exterior to the body of said subject and determining the presence or concentration of the analyte therefrom.

95. A method of determining the presence or concentration of an analyte in a medium having a first refractive index, said method comprising the steps of

disposing a sensor in said medium, said sensor comprising an embedded source of illumination and an embedded photosensitive element and having a second refractive index;

internally illuminating said sensor by means of said source of illumination, the level of internal illumination varying as a function of the first and second refractive indices;

measuring the level of internal illumination by means of said photosensitive element; and

determining the presence or concentration of said analyte from the level of internal illumination.