Monocrystalline ceramic electrostatic chuck

• US 6,529,362 B2
• Filed: 08/29/1997
• Issued: 03/04/2003
• Est. Priority Date: 03/06/1997
• Status: Expired due to Fees

• Current Assignee: Applied Materials Incorporated
• Original Assignee: Applied Materials Incorporated
• Inventors: Herchen, Harald
• Primary Examiner(s): FLEMING, FRITZ M
• Application Number:
  US08/920,423
• Publication Number:
  US 20010046112A1
• Time in Patent Office: 2,013 Days
• Field of Search: 361/233, 361/234, 279/128, 117/23, 117/54, 117/950, 427/420, 118/667, 118/401, 118/429, 118/500, 501/86
• US Class Current: 361/234
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 21/6831 using electrostatic chucks
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 21/6833 Details of electrostatic chucks
• CPC Class Codes: H02N 13/00 Clutches or holding devices using electrostatic attraction, e.g. using Johnson-Rahbek effect

Abstract

An electrostatic chuck 20 for holding a substrate 12 in a process chamber, comprises a unitary monolithic structure 25 of monocrystalline ceramic. The monocrystalline monolith has an electrode 45 embedded therein for electrostatically holding the substrate 12 upon application of a voltage thereto. An electrical connector 50 extends through the unitary monolithic structure 25 for supplying a voltage to the electrode 45. In one version, the monolithic structure 25 is made from a single piece of monocrystalline ceramic formed by a melt forming process. In another version, the monolithic structure 25 comprises a plurality of monocrystalline ceramic plates 270 bonded to one another to form the monolithic structure 25. Preferably, the monolithic structure 25 comprises monocrystalline sapphire and the electrode 45 comprises a refractory metal.

Claims

1. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate in a process chamber, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) a monolith of monocrystalline ceramic having a surface adapted to receive the substrate;

(b) an electrode in the monolith, the electrode adapted to electrostatically hold the substrate upon application of a voltage to the electrode; and

(c) an electrical connector capable of supplying the voltage to the electrode, the electrical connector extending through the monolith.

2. The electrostatic chuck of claim 1 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises large crystals having a diameter from about 0.5 to about 10 cm, that are oriented in substantially a single crystallographic direction.

3. The electrostatic chuck of claim 2 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises Al₂O₃, AlN, BaTiO₃, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB₆, MgO, MoSi₂, Si₃N₄, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, TiB₂, TiN, TiO₂, TiSi₂, VB₂, W₂B₃, WSi₂, ZrB₂, or ZrO₂ or mixtures thereof.

4. The electrostatic chuck of claim 1 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises sapphire.

5. The electrostatic chuck of claim 1 further comprising (i) a gas channel for holding heat transfer gas in the electrostatic chuck, (ii) a gas feed for providing heat transfer gas to the gas channel, and (iii) one or more gas vents extending from the gas channel to the surface for providing heat transfer gas below the substrate.

6. The electrostatic chuck of claim 1 further comprising (i) a fluid conduit adapted to circulate heat transfer fluid in the electrostatic chuck, (ii) a fluid inlet adapted to supply heat transfer fluid to the fluid conduit, and (iii) a fluid outlet adapted to remove the heat transfer fluid.

7. The electrostatic chuck of claim 6 wherein the fluid conduit comprises first passageways at a distance D1 from the surface and second passageways at a distance D2 from the surface, the distance D1 being greater than the distance D2.

8. The electrostatic chuck of claim 7 wherein the fluid conduit comprises an axis that is at an angle to the surface.

9. The electrostatic chuck of claim 7 wherein the first passageways are adjacent to the fluid inlet and the second passageways are adjacent to the fluid outlet.

10. The electrostatic chuck of claim 9 wherein the fluid conduit rises toward the surface from the fluid inlet to the fluid outlet.

11. The electrostatic chuck of claim 1 wherein the electrode comprises a refractory metal.

12. The electrostatic chuck of claim 1 wherein the monolith comprises one or more monocrystalline ceramic plates, and wherein the electrode comprises at least one of the following:

(a) dopant in a monocrystalline ceramic plate;

or

(b) lattice defects in a monocrystalline ceramic plate.

13. A process chamber comprising the electrostatic chuck of claim 1, the process chamber further comprising:

(a) a gas distributor; and

(b) an exhaust,

whereby a substrate held on the electrostatic chuck is capable of being processed by gas distributed by the gas distributor and exhausted by the exhaust.

14. A method for fabricating an electrostatic chuck, the method comprising the steps of:

(a) melting ceramic material in a mold to form molten ceramic, the mold having an internal shape of the electrostatic chuck;

(b) holding one or more of electrode forms, channel forms, and conduit forms in the molten ceramic;

(c) maintaining a seeding crystal in contact with the molten ceramic;

(d) cooling the molten ceramic to form monocrystalline ceramic comprising large crystals substantially oriented to one another, and having the electrode forms, channel forms, or conduit forms embedded therein; and

(e) treating one or more of the electrode forms, channel forms, or conduit forms in the monocrystalline ceramic to form an electrode, channel, or conduit.

15. The method of claim 14 wherein step (d) comprises cooling the surface of the molten ceramic in a direction that proceeds outwardly from the seeding crystal.

16. The method of claim 14 wherein in step (c) the seeding crystal is contacted against an exposed surface of the molten ceramic in the mold, and in step (d) the exposed surface of the molten ceramic is cooled while walls of the mold are heated.

17. The method of claim 14 wherein the electrode forms comprise refractory metal.

18. The method of claim 14 wherein the conduit forms and channel forms are made from:

(1) a chemically etchable material that can be etched away without damaging the monocrystalline ceramic;

or

(2) an oxidizable material that can be oxidized away without damaging the monocrystalline ceramic.

19. The method of claim 14 wherein the conduit forms or channel forms are made from graphite, and wherein in step (e) the graphite is removed by oxidation to provide hollow channels and conduits in of monocrystalline ceramic.

20. An electrostatic chuck formed by the method of claims 14.

21. The electrostatic chuck of claim 20 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises sapphire.

22. An intermediate product for fabricating an electrostatic chuck, the intermediate product comprising a monolith of monocrystalline ceramic having one or more chemically degradable forms that are shaped to form channels and fluid conduits.

23. The intermediate product of claim 22 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises Al2O3, AlN, BaTiO3, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB6, MgO, MoSi2, Si3N4, SiO2, Ta2O5, TiB2, TiN, TiO2, TiSi2, VB2, W2B3, WSi2, ZrB2, or ZrO2 or mixtures thereof.

24. The intermediate product of claim 22 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises sapphire.

25. The intermediate product of claim 22 wherein the chemically degradable forms comprise material that can be etched away by a gas or liquid.

26. The intermediate product of claim 25 wherein the chemically degradable forms comprise graphite.

27. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) first and second monocrystalline plates and a ceramic material between the monocrystalline plates, at least one of the monocrystalline plates having a surface adapted to receive the substrate and the ceramic material comprising an eutectic mixture of aluminum oxide and an eutectic compound;

(b) an electrode; and

(c) an electrical connector adapted to supply a voltage to the electrode, the electrical connector extending through at least one of the monocrystalline plates.

28. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein each of the monocrystalline plates comprise large crystals that are oriented relative to one another, the crystals having an average diameter of from about 0.5 to about 10 cm.

29. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein the monocrystalline plates comprise sapphire.

30. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein the eutectic mixture has a melting temperature of less than about 2000°

C.

31. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein at least one of the monocrystalline plates has a thickness of from about 0.1 to about 1 cm.

32. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein at least one of the monocrystalline plates comprises (i) a gas channel for holding heat transfer gas in the electrostatic chuck, (ii) a gas feed for providing heat transfer gas to the gas channel, and (iii) one or more gas vents extending from the gas channel to the surface for providing heat transfer gas below the substrate.

33. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein one or more of the monocrystalline plates comprise (i) a fluid conduit adapted to circulate heat transfer fluid in the electrostatic chuck, (ii) a fluid inlet adapted to supply heat transfer fluid to the fluid conduit, and (iii) a fluid outlet adapted to remove the heat transfer fluid.

34. The electrostatic chuck of claim 33 wherein the fluid conduit comprises first passageways at a distance D₁ from the surface and second passageways at a distance D₂ from the surface, the distance D₁ being greater than the distance D₂.

35. The electrostatic chuck of claim 34 wherein the first passageways are adjacent to the fluid inlet and the second passageways are adjacent to the fluid outlet.

36. The electrostatic chuck of claim 35 wherein the fluid conduit rises toward the surface from the fluid inlet to the fluid outlet.

37. The electrostatic chuck of claim 33 wherein the fluid conduit comprises an axis that is at an angle to the surface.

38. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein the electrode comprises at least one of the following:

(a) dopant in one or more monocrystalline plates;

or

(b) lattice defects in one or more monocrystalline plates.

39. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein the electrode comprises a refractory metal.

40. A process chamber comprising the electrostatic chuck of claim 27, the process chamber further comprising:

(a) a gas distributor; and

(b) an exhaust,

whereby a substrate held on the electrostatic chuck is capable of being processed by gas distributed by the gas distributor and exhausted by the exhaust.

41. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein the ceramic material is in a bond material.

42. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein the ceramic material comprises aluminum oxide.

92. The electrostatic chuck of claim 27 wherein said means comprises aluminum oxide and the substrate comprises aluminum oxide.

43. A method of forming an electrostatic chuck, the method comprising the steps of:

(a) forming a plurality of monocrystalline ceramic plates comprising large aluminum oxide crystals oriented to one another;

(b) forming an electrode on one of the monocrystalline ceramic plates; and

(c) bonding the monocrystalline ceramic plates to one another with a bond material comprising a ceramic comprising an eutectic mixture of aluminum oxide and an eutectic component, at least one of the monocrystalline ceramic plates having a surface adapted to receive the substrate.

44. The method of claim 43 wherein step (c) comprises the steps of applying a bonding material to the monocrystalline ceramic plates and heat treating the bonding material.

45. The method of claim 44 wherein the eutectic mixture has a melting temperature of less than about 2000°

C.

46. The method of claim 43 wherein step (a) comprises forming in one or more of the monocrystalline ceramic plates:

a gas channel adapted to hold heat transfer gas in the electrostatic chuck, a gas feed adapted to provide heat transfer gas to the gas channel, and one or more gas vents adapted to provide heat transfer gas to a surface of the electrostatic chuck; and

wherein step (c) comprises the initial step of aligning the gas channel, gas feed, and gas vents to one another.

47. The method of claim 43 wherein step (a) comprises forming in one or more of the monocrystalline ceramic plates:

a fluid conduit adapted to hold heat transfer fluid, a fluid inlet adapted to supply heat transfer fluid to the fluid conduit, and a fluid outlet adapted to exhaust the heat transfer fluid; and

wherein step (c) comprises the initial step of aligning the fluid conduit, fluid inlet, and fluid outlet to one another.

48. The method of claim 47 wherein step (a) comprises the step of forming a fluid conduit having first passageways at a distance D₁ from the surface and second passageways at a distance D₂ from the surface, the distance D₁ being greater than the distance D₂.

49. The method of claim 48 comprising positioning the first passageways adjacent to the fluid inlet and the second passageways adjacent to the fluid outlet.

50. The method of claim 43 wherein in step (b), the electrode is formed by at least one of the following steps:

(1) doping a monocrystalline ceramic plate with a dopant to form a conducting pattern;

(2) forming a pattern of lattice defects on a monocrystalline ceramic plate;

or

(3) applying a pattern of electrical conductor material on a monocrystalline ceramic plate.

51. The method of claim 43 wherein in step (b), the electrode is formed on the monocrystalline ceramic plate by at least one of the following steps:

(i) attaching a mesh electrode to the monocrystalline ceramic plate;

(ii) depositing a metal layer on the monocrystalline ceramic plate and etching the deposited metal layer;

or

(iii) forming a pattern of resist features on the monocrystalline ceramic plate and depositing metal between the resist features.

52. The method of claim 43 wherein the electrode comprises a refractory metal.

53. The method of claim 43 wherein the electrode comprises apertures sized sufficiently small to form an electrode capable of electrostatically holding the substrate upon application of a voltage to the electrode, and sufficiently large to allow bonding material in the apertures to securely bond the monocrystalline ceramic plates to one another.

54. An electrostatic chuck formed by the method of claim 43.

55. The method of claim 43 wherein the electrode is between the monocrystalline plates.

56. The method of claim 43 wherein the bond material is about the periphery of the electrode.

58. The electrostatic chuck of claim 49 wherein the ceramic monolith comprises a monocrystalline material.

59. The electrostatic chuck of claim 58 wherein the monocrystalline material comprises large crystals having a diameter of from about 0.5 to about 10 cm, and that are oriented in substantially a single crystallographic direction.

60. The electrostatic chuck of claim 58 wherein the monocrystalline material comprises Al2O3, AlN, BaTiO3, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB6, MgO, MoSi2, Si3N4, SiO2, Ta2O5, TiB2, TiN, TiO2, TiSi2, VB2, W2B3, WSi2, ZrB2, ZrO2 or mixtures thereof.

61. The electrostatic chuck of claim 58 wherein the monocrystalline material comprises sapphire.

57. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) a ceramic monolith having a surface capable of receiving the substrate; and

(b) an electrode in the ceramic monolith for electrostatically holding the substrate upon application of a voltage to the electrode.

62. The electrostatic chuck of claim 57 further comprising a gas channel for holding heat transfer gas in the electrostatic chuck, a gas feed for providing heat transfer gas to the gas channel, and one or more gas vents extending from the gas channel to the surface for providing heat transfer gas below the substrate.

63. The electrostatic chuck of claim 57 further comprising a fluid conduit for circulating heat transfer fluid in the electrostatic chuck, a fluid inlet for supplying heat transfer fluid to the fluid conduit, and a fluid outlet for removing the heat transfer fluid.

64. The electrostatic chuck of claim 63 wherein the fluid conduit comprises first passageways at a distance D₁ from the surface and second passageways at a distance D₂ from the surface, the distance D₁ being greater than the distance D₂.

65. The electrostatic chuck of claim 64 wherein the first passageways are adjacent to the fluid inlet and the second passageways are adjacent to the fluid outlet.

66. The electrostatic chuck of claim 63 wherein the fluid conduit comprises a rectangular cross-section that is at an angle to the plane of the surface.

67. The electrostatic chuck of claim 63 wherein the fluid conduit is helical.

68. The electrostatic chuck of claim 63 wherein the electrode comprises a refractory metal having a melting point of at least about 2200°

C.

69. A process chamber comprising the electrostatic chuck of claim 63.

70. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising;

(a) a monocrystalline monolith composed of large crystals that are substantially oriented to one another; and

(b) an electrode in the monocrystalline monolith, the electrode being chargeable to electrostatically hold the substrate.

71. The electrostatic chuck of claim 70 wherein the large crystals have diameters of from about 0.5 to about 10 cm.

72. The electrostatic chuck of claim 70 wherein the monocrystalline monolith comprises a ceramic.

73. The electrostatic chuck of claim 70 wherein the monocrystalline monolith comprises Al₂O₃, AlN, BaTiO₃, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB6, MgO, MoSi₂, Si₃N₄, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, TiB₂, TiN, TiO₂, TiSi₂, VB₂, W₂B₃, WSi₂, ZrB₂, ZrO₂ or mixtures thereof.

74. The electrostatic chuck of claim 70 wherein the monocrystalline monolith comprises sapphire.

75. The electrostatic chuck of claim 70 wherein the electrode comprises at least one of the following:

(a) a pattern of dopant in the monocrystalline monolith;

(b) a pattern of lattice defects in the monocrystalline monolith;

or

(c) a refractory metal.

76. A process chamber capable of processing a substrate, the process chamber comprising:

(a) an electrostatic chuck adapted to hold the substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising an electrode in a monocrystalline monolith comprising large crystals substantially oriented to one another and having a surface adapted to receive the substrate, and the electrode being chargeable to electrostatically hold the substrate;

(b) a gas distributor having gas inlet holes adapted to provide process gas to the process chamber and optionally a gas energizer capable of coupling energy to the process gas; and

(c) an exhaust that exhausts the process gas from the process chamber.

77. The process chamber of claim 76 wherein the monocrystalline monolith comprises Al₂O₃, AlN, BaTiO₃, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB₆, MgO, MoSi₂, Si₃N₄, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, TiB₂, TiN, TiO₂, TiSi₂, VB₂, W₂B₃, WSi₂, ZrB₂, ZrO₂ or mixtures thereof.

78. The process chamber of claim 76 further comprising a fluid conduit adapted to circulate heat transfer fluid in the electrostatic chuck, a fluid inlet adapted to supply heat transfer fluid to the fluid conduit, and a fluid outlet adapted to remove the heat transfer fluid.

79. The process chamber of claim 78 wherein the fluid conduit comprises first passageways at a distance D₁ from the surface and second passageways at a distance D₂ from the surface, the distance D₁ being greater than the distance D₂.

80. The process chamber of claim 76 wherein the electrode comprises at least one of the following:

(a) a pattern of dopant in the monocrystalline monolith;

(b) a pattern of lattice defects in the monocrystalline monolith;

or

(c) a refractory metal.

81. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) a monolith of monocrystalline ceramic having a surface adapted to receive the substrate, the monocrystalline ceramic having a dopant therein to reduce the electrical resistance of the monocrystalline ceramic; and

(b) an electrode in the monolith of monocrystalline ceramic, the electrode being chargeable for electrostatically holding the substrate.

82. The electrostatic chuck of claim 81 wherein the monolith of monocrystalline ceramic comprises an electrical resistance sufficiently low to cause the substrate to be electrostatically held by non-coulombic electrostatic pressure upon application of a voltage to the electrode.

83. The electrostatic chuck of claim 81 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises large crystals oriented in substantially a single crystallographic direction.

84. The electrostatic chuck of claim 83 wherein the large crystals comprise a diameter of from about 0.5 to about 10 cm.

85. The electrostatic chuck of claim 81 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises Al₂O₃, AlN, BaTiO₃, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB₆, MgO, MoSi₂, Si₃N₄, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, TiB₂, TiN, TiO₂, TiSi₂, VB₂, W₂B₃, WSi₂, ZrB₂, ZrO₂ or mixtures thereof.

86. The electrostatic chuck of claim 81 wherein the electrode comprises at least one of the following:

(a) a pattern of dopant in the monocrystalline ceramic;

(b) a pattern of lattice defects in the monocrystalline ceramic;

or

(c) a refractory metal.

87. An electrostatic chuck capable of electrostatically holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) an electrode that is chargeable to electrostatically hold the substrate; and

(b) means for covering the electrode and reducing contamination of the substrate, the means comprising a monolith comprising monocrystalline material, the electrode being in the monolith.

88. The electrostatic chuck of claim 87 wherein the monocrystalline material comprises a plurality of crystals oriented in substantially a single crystallographic direction.

89. The electrostatic chuck of claim 87 wherein the monocrystalline material comprises large crystals having a diameter of from about 0.5 to about 10 cm.

90. The electrostatic chuck of claim 87 wherein said means and the substrate comprise the same material.

91. The electrostatic chuck of claim 87 wherein said means comprises silicon and the substrate comprises silicon.

93. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate in a process chamber, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) a monolith of monocrystalline ceramic having a surface adapted to receive the substrate, the monolith of monocrystalline ceramic comprising large crystals having diameters of from about 0.5 to about 10 cm and that are oriented in substantially a single crystallographic direction;

(b) an electrode in the monolith, the electrode adapted to electrostatically hold the substrate upon application of a voltage to the electrode; and

(c) an electrical connector capable of supplying the voltage to the electrode, the electrical connector extending through the monolith.

94. The electrostatic chuck of claim 93 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises Al₂O₃, AlN, BaTiO₃, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB₆, MgO, MoSi₂, Si₃N₄, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, TiB₂, TiN, TiO₂, TiSi₂, VB₂, W₂B₃, WSi₂, ZrB₂, or ZrO₂ or mixtures thereof.

95. The electrostatic chuck of claim 93 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic consists essentially of sapphire crystals.

96. The electrostatic chuck of claim 93 further comprising (i) a gas channel for holding heat transfer gas in the chuck, (ii) a gas feed for providing heat transfer gas to the gas channel, and (iii) one or more gas vents extending from the channel to the receiving surface to provide heat transfer gas below the substrate.

97. The electrostatic chuck of claim 93 further comprising (i) a fluid conduit for circulating heat transfer fluid in the chuck, (ii) a fluid inlet for supplying heat transfer fluid to the conduit, and (iii) a fluid outlet for removing the heat transfer fluid.

98. The electrostatic chuck of claim 93 wherein the electrode comprises a metal having a melting point of at least about 2200°

C.

99. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) a monocrystalline plate covering an electrode;

(b) a bond material comprising a ceramic, the bond material adjacent the monocrystalline plate, and the bond material comprising an eutectic mixture of aluminum oxide and an eutectic compound; and

(c) an electrical connector adapted to supply a voltage to the electrode.

101. An electrostatic chuck according to claim 99 wherein the bond material is adapted to bond the monocrystalline plate to another monocrystalline plate.

102. An electrostatic chuck according to claim 101 wherein the electrode is between the monocrystalline plates.

100. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) a monocrystalline plate covering an electrode, the monocrystalline plate comprising Al₂O₃, AlN, BaTiO₃, BeO, CaO, LaB₆, MgO, MoSi₂, Si₃N₄, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, TiB₂, TiN, TiO₂, TiSi₂, VB₂, W₂B₃, WSi₂, ZrB₂, or ZrO₂ or mixtures thereof;

(b) a bond material comprising a ceramic, the bond material adjacent the monocrystalline plate, and the bond material comprising an eutectic mixture of aluminum oxide and an eutectic compound; and

(c) an electrical connector adapted to supply a voltage to the electrode.

103. An electrostatic chuck capable of holding a substrate, the electrostatic chuck comprising:

(a) a monolith of monocrystalline ceramic having a surface adapted to receive the substrate; and

(b) an electrode in the monolith of monocrystalline ceramic, the electrode comprising a dopant and being chargeable for electrostatically holding the substrate.

104. The electrostatic chuck of claim 103 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises large crystals having a diameter of from about 0.5 to about 10 cm, that are oriented in substantially a single crystallographic direction.

105. The electrostatic chuck of claim 103 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises Al₂O₃, AlN, BaTiO₃, BeO, BN, CaO, LaB₆, MgO, MoSi₂, Si₃N₄, SiO₂, Ta₂O₅, TiB₂, TiN, TiO₂, TiSi₂, VB₂, W₂B₃, WSi₂, ZrB₂, ZrO₂ or mixtures thereof.

106. The electrostatic chuck of claim 103 wherein the monocrystalline ceramic comprises sapphire.

107. The electrostatic chuck of claim 103 further comprising a gas channel for holding heat transfer gas in the electrostatic chuck, a gas feed for providing heat transfer gas to the gas channel, and one or more gas vents extending from the gas channel to the surface for providing heat transfer gas below the substrate.

108. The electrostatic chuck of claim 103 further comprising a fluid conduit for circulating heat transfer fluid in the electrostatic chuck, a fluid inlet for supplying heat transfer fluid to the fluid conduit, and a fluid outlet for removing the heat transfer fluid.

109. The electrostatic chuck of claim 108 wherein the fluid conduit comprises first passageways at a distance D₁ from the surface and second passageways at a distance D₂ from the surface, the distance D₁ being greater than the distance D₂.

110. The electrostatic chuck of claim 109 wherein the first passageways are adjacent to the fluid inlet and the second passageways are adjacent to the fluid outlet.

111. The electrostatic chuck of claim 108 wherein the fluid conduit comprises a rectangular cross-section that is at an angle to the plane of the surface.

112. The electrostatic chuck of claim 108 wherein the fluid conduit is helical.

113. The electrostatic chuck of claim 103 wherein the electrode comprises a refractory metal having a melting point of at least about 2200°

C.

114. A process chamber comprising the electrostatic chuck of claim 103.