Nanocomposites

• US 7,228,050 B1
• Filed: 01/26/2006
• Issued: 06/05/2007
• Est. Priority Date: 09/05/2002
• Status: Expired due to Term

• Current Assignee: ONED Material Incorporated
• Original Assignee: Nanosys Incorporated (Shoei Electronic Materials, Inc.)
• Inventors: Niu, Chunming, Empedocles, Stephen, Scher, Erik C., Buretea, Mihai
• Primary Examiner(s): Font; Frank G.
• Assistant Examiner(s): WONG, ERIC K
• Application Number:
  US11/342,087
• Publication Number:
  US 20070122101A1
• Time in Patent Office: 495 Days
• Field of Search: None
• US Class Current: 385/141
• CPC Class Codes: B82Y 20/00 Nanooptics, e.g. quantum optics or photonic crystals
• CPC Class Codes: B82Y 30/00 Nanotechnology for materials or surface science, e.g. nanocomposites
• CPC Class Codes: C03C 14/006 the non-glass component being in the form of microcrystallites, e.g. of optically or electrically active material
• CPC Class Codes: C03C 2214/16 Microcrystallites, e.g. of optically or electrically active material
• CPC Class Codes: C08L 83/00 Compositions of macromolecular compounds obtained by reactions forming in the main chain of the macromolecule a linkage containing silicon with or without sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen or carbon only; Compositions of derivatives of such polymers
• CPC Class Codes: C08L 83/04 Polysiloxanes
• CPC Class Codes: F24S 23/12 Light guides
• CPC Class Codes: G02B 1/045 Light guides
• CPC Class Codes: G02F 2202/36 Micro- or nanomaterials
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/0547 comprising light concentrating means of the reflecting type, e.g. parabolic mirrors, concentrators using total internal reflection
• CPC Class Codes: H01L 31/055 where light is absorbed and re-emitted at a different wavelength by the optical element directly associated or integrated with the PV cell, e.g. by using luminescent material, fluorescent concentrators or up-conversion arrangements
• CPC Class Codes: H01S 3/0632 Thin film lasers in which light propagates in the plane of the thin film
• CPC Class Codes: H01S 3/169 Nanoparticles, e.g. doped nanoparticles acting as a gain material
• CPC Class Codes: H01S 5/10 Construction or shape of the optical resonator , e.g. extended or external cavity, coupled cavities, bent-guide, varying width, thickness or composition of the active region H01S5/20 takes precedence
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 10/40 Solar thermal energy, e.g. solar towers
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 10/52 PV systems with concentrators
• CPC Class Codes: Y10T 428/29 Coated or structually defined flake, particle, cell, strand, strand portion, rod, filament, macroscopic fiber or mass thereof

Abstract

This invention provides composite materials comprising nanostructures (e.g., nanowires, branched nanowires, nanotetrapods, nanocrystals, and nanoparticles). Methods and compositions for making such nanocomposites are also provided, as are articles comprising such composites. Waveguides and light concentrators comprising nanostructures (not necessarily as part of a nanocomposite) are additional features of the invention.

Claims

1. A composite material, comprising:

a plurality of discrete, preformed inorganic nanowires, wherein the inorganic nanowires comprise a core and one or more shell layers disposed about the core; and

a small molecule or molecular matrix or a matrix comprising at least one polymer, which small molecule or molecular matrix or components thereof or which matrix comprising at least one polymer or components thereof are used to orient the nanowires.

2. A composite material, comprising one or more discrete, preformed nanostructures and a polymeric matrix comprising a polysiloxane.

3. A composite material as in claim 2, wherein the matrix comprises polydimethylsiloxane.

4. A composite material as in claim 2, wherein the matrix comprises a copolymer between dimethylsiloxane and another siloxane.

5. A composite material as in claim 2, wherein the one or more nanostructures comprise one or more of:

nanowires, nanocrystals, branched nanowires, or nanotetrapods.

6. A composite material as in claim 2, wherein the one or more nanostructures comprise one or more of:

a metal, a ferroelectric material, a ferroelectric ceramic material, a perovskite-type material, a KDP-type material, a TGS-type material, a fluorescent material, a semiconducting material, a material comprising a first element selected from group 2 of the periodic table and a second element selected from group 16, a material comprising a first element selected from group 12 and a second element selected from group 16, a material comprising a first element selected from group 13 and a second element selected from group 15, a material comprising a group 14 element, or an alloy or a mixture thereof.

7. A composite material as in claim 6, wherein the one or more nanostructures comprise one or more of:

BaTiO3, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, KNbO3, PbTiO3, LiTiO3, LiTaO3, LiNbO3, Ba(1-x)CaxTiO3 where x is between 0 and 1, PbTi(1-x)ZrxO3 where x is between 0 and 1, KH2PO4, KD2PO4, RbH2PO4, RbH2AsO4, KH2AsO4, GeTe, tri-glycine sulfate, tri-glycine selenate, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, MgS, MgSe, MgTe, CaS, CaSe, CaTe, SrS, SrSe, SrTe, BaS, BaSe, BaTe, GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InN, InP, InAs, InSb, Ge, Si, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, AlS, AlP, AlSb, or an alloy or a mixture thereof.

8. A composite material as in claim 2, further comprising at least one surfactant or at least one solvent.

9. A shaped article of a composite material according to claim 2.

10. An LED, laser, waveguide, or amplifier comprising a composite as in claim 2.

11. A composite material, comprising:

a small molecule or molecular matrix or a matrix comprising at least one organic polymer or inorganic glass; and

one or more discrete, preformed inorganic nanowires, wherein the one or more inorganic nanowires are selected from the group consisting of semiconducting inorganic nanowires and ferroelectric inorganic nanowires, which semiconducting inorganic nanowires comprise a core and one or more shell layers disposed about the core, and which semiconducting inorganic nanowires do not comprise a magnetic material, wherein the one or more inorganic nanowires have an aspect ratio greater than about 10, and wherein the inorganic nanowires are dispersed in the matrix.

12. A composite material as in claim 11, wherein the composite material comprises one or more inorganic nanowires and the one or more inorganic nanowires comprise a plurality of inorganic nanowires.

13. A composite material as in claim 12, wherein the orientation of the nanowires is substantially nonrandom.

14. A composite material as in claim 13, wherein the composite material is formed into a thin film, the thin film being substantially free of strain.

15. A composite material as in claim 13, wherein the composite material is formed into a highly-strained stretched film.

16. A composite material as in claim 13, wherein the composite material is formed into a thin film within which a majority of the nanowires have their long axes oriented substantially parallel to a surface of the film.

17. A composite material as in claim 13, wherein the composite material is formed into a thin film within which a majority of the nanowires are oriented such that each has its long axis more nearly perpendicular than parallel to a surface of the film.

18. A composite material as in claim 13, wherein the composite material is formed into a thin film within which a majority of the nanowires are oriented such that each has its long axis substantially perpendicular to a surface of the film.

19. A composite material as in claim 11, wherein the ferroelectric inorganic nanowires comprise one or more of:

ferroelectric ceramic, perovskite-type, KDP-type, or TGS-type nanowires.

20. A composite material as in claim 19, wherein the ferroelectric inorganic nanowires comprise one or more of:

BaTiO3, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, KNbO3, PbTiO3, LiTiO3, LiTaO3, LiNbO3, Ba(1-x)CaxTiO3 where x is between 0 and 1, PbTi(1-x)ZrxO3 where x is between 0 and 1, KH2PO4, KD2PO4, RbH2PO4, RbH2AsO4, KH2AsO4, GeTe, tri-glycine sulfate, or tri-glycine selenate nanowires.

21. A composite material as in claim 11, wherein the semiconducting inorganic nanowires comprise one or more of:

a material comprising a first element selected from group 2 of the periodic table and a second element selected from group 16, a material comprising a first element selected from group 12 and a second element selected from group 16, a material comprising a first element selected from group 13 and a second element selected from group 15, a material comprising a group 14 element, or an alloy or a mixture thereof.

22. A composite material as in claim 21, wherein the semiconducting inorganic nanowires comprise one or more of:

ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, HgS, HgSe, HgTe, MgS, MgSe, MgTe, CaS, CaSe, CaTe, SrS, SrSe, SrTe, BaS, BaSe, BaTe, GaN, GaP, GaAs, GaSb, InN, InP, InAs, InSb, Ge, Si, PbS, PbSe, PbTe, AlS, AlP, AlSb, or an alloy or a mixture thereof.

23. A composite material as in claim 11, wherein the small molecule or molecular matrix comprises one or more of:

N,N′

-diphenyl-N,N′

-bis(3-methylphenyl)-(1,1′

biphenyl)-4,4′

-diamine);

(3-(4-biphenyl)-4-phenyl-5-tert-butylphenyl-1,2,4-triazole);

tris-(8-hydroxyquinoline) aluminum;

benzoic acid;

phthalic acid;

benzoin;

hydroxyphenol;

nitrophenol;

chlorophenol;

chloroaniline;

or chlorobenzoamide.

24. A composite material as in claim 11, wherein the at least one organic polymer comprises one or more of:

a thermoplastic polymer, a polyolefin, a polyester, a polysilicone, a polyacrylonitrile resin, a polystyrene resin, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polyvinyl acetate, a fluoroplastic, a thermosetting polymer, a phenolic resin, a urea resin, a melamine resin, an epoxy resin, a polyurethane resin, an engineering plastic, a polyamide, a polyacrylate resin, a polyketone, a polyimide, a polysulfone, a polycarbonate, a polyacetal, a liquid crystal polymer, a main chain liquid crystal polymer, poly(hydroxynapthoic acid), a side chain liquid crystal polymer, poly<

n-((4′

(4″

-cyanphenyl)phenoxy)alkyl)vinyl ether>

, a conductive polymer, poly(3-hexylthiophene), poly[2-methoxy, 5-(2′

-ethyl-hexyloxy)-p-phenylene-vinylene], poly(phenylene vinylene), or polyaniline.

25. A composite material as in claim 11, wherein the one or more inorganic nanowires have an average diameter between about 2 nm and about 100 nm, between about 2 nm and about 5 nm, or between about 10 nm and about 50 nm.

26. A composite material as in claim 11, wherein the one or more inorganic nanowires have an aspect ratio between about 10 and about 10,000, between about 20 and about 10,000, between about 50 and about 10,000, or between about 100 and about 10,000.

27. A composite material, comprising:

a plurality of discrete, preformed inorganic nanowires, each comprising a core and at least one shell; and

a glassy or crystalline inorganic matrix or a matrix comprising at least one polymer,

wherein the composite material is distributed on a first layer of a material that conducts substantially only electrons or substantially only holes.

28. A composite material as in claim 27, wherein the composite and the first layer are in contact.

29. A composite material as in claim 27, wherein the composite and the first layer are separated by a second layer, the second layer comprising a material that conducts electrons or holes or both electrons and holes.

30. A composite material as in claim 27, wherein the first layer is distributed on an electrode.

31. A composite material as in claim 30, wherein the first layer and the electrode are in contact.

32. A composite material as in claim 30, wherein the first layer and the electrode are separated by a third layer, the third layer comprising a material that conducts electrons or holes or both electrons and holes.

33. A composite material, comprising:

a matrix, wherein the matrix comprises at least one polymer, comprises at least one glass, or is a small molecule or molecular matrix, which small molecule or molecular matrix conducts both electrons and holes, conducts substantially only electrons, is semiconducting, or is substantially nonconductive; and

one or more discrete, preformed inorganic nanowires, the one or more nanowires each comprising a core and at least one shell, the core comprising a first semiconducting material having a conduction band and a valence band, the shell comprising a second semiconducting material having a conduction band and a valence band, and the first and second materials having a type I band offset, wherein the nanowires are dispersed in the matrix.

34. A composite material as in claim 33, wherein the conduction band of the first material is lower than the conduction band of the second material, and the valence band of the first material is higher than the valence band of the second material.

35. A composite material as in claim 33, wherein the conduction band of the first material is higher than the conduction band of the second material, and the valence band of the first material is lower than the valence band of the second material.

36. A composite material as in claim 33, wherein the matrix comprising at least one polymer or at least one glass conducts both electrons and holes, conducts substantially only holes, conducts substantially only electrons, is semiconducting, or is substantially nonconductive.

37. A composite material, comprising:

one or more inorganic nanowires comprising a first semiconducting material having a conduction band and a valence band, wherein the nanowires comprise a core and at least one shell; and

a matrix comprising a second semiconducting material having a conduction band and a valence band, wherein the first and second materials have a type I band offset.

38. A composite material as in claim 37, wherein the conduction band of the first material is lower than the conduction band of the second material, and the valence band of the first material is higher than the valence band of the second material.

39. A composite material as in claim 37, wherein the conduction band of the first material is higher than the conduction band of the second material, and the valence band of the first material is lower than the valence band of the second material.

40. A composite material as in claim 37, wherein each nanowire comprises a core and at least one shell, the core comprising the first material.

41. A composite material as in claim 37, wherein each nanowire comprises a core and at least one shell, the shell comprising the first material.

42. A composite material as in claim 37, wherein the matrix comprises at least one polymer, comprises at least one glass, or is a small molecule or molecular matrix.

43. A composite material, comprising:

one or more inorganic nanowires comprising a first semiconducting material having a conduction band and a valence band, wherein the nanowires comprise a core and at least one shell; and

a matrix comprising a second semiconducting material having a conduction band and a valence band, wherein the first and second materials have a type II band offset.

44. A composite material as in claim 43, wherein the conduction band of the first material is lower than the conduction band of the second material, and the valence band of the first material is lower than the valence band of the second material.

45. A composite material as in claim 43, wherein the conduction band of the first material is higher than the conduction band of the second material, and the valence band of the first material is higher than the valence band of the second material.

46. A composite material as in claim 43, wherein each nanowire comprises a core and at least one shell, the core comprising the first material.

47. A composite material as in claim 43, wherein each nanowire comprises a core and at least one shell, the shell comprising the first material.

48. A composite material as in claim 47, wherein the core comprises a third semiconducting material having a conduction band and a valence band, the third and first materials having a type II band offset.

49. A composite material as in claim 43, wherein the matrix comprises at least one polymer, comprises at least one glass, or is a small molecule or molecular matrix.

50. A composite material, comprising:

a plurality of discrete, preformed inorganic nanowires, wherein the nanowires each comprise a core and one or more shell layers disposed about the core; and

a small molecule or molecular matrix or a matrix comprising at least one polymer, the at least one polymer or constituents of the small molecule or molecular matrix having an affinity for at least a portion of a surface of the nanowires.

51. A composite material, comprising:

a plurality of discrete, preformed inorganic nanowires, wherein the nanowires each comprise one or more surface ligands, and wherein the nanowires each comprise a core and one or more shell layers disposed about the core; and

a small molecule or molecular matrix or a matrix comprising at least one polymer, the at least one polymer or constituents of the small molecule or molecular matrix having an affinity for the one or more surface ligands.

52. A composite material as in claim 51, wherein the one or more surface ligands each comprise at least one small molecule found in the small molecule or molecular matrix or a derivative thereof or at least one monomer found in the at least one polymer or a derivative thereof.

53. A composite material as in claim 51, wherein the one or more surface ligands each comprise at least one functional group selected from the group consisting of:

an amine, a phosphine, a phosphine oxide, a phosphonate, a phosphonite, a phosphinic acid, a phosphonic acid, a thiol, an alcohol, and an amine oxide.

54. A composite material, comprising:

one or more discrete, preformed ferroelectric nanowires or one or more discrete, preformed ferroelectric nanoparticles and a small molecule or molecular matrix or a matrix comprising one or more polymers.

55. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles comprise one or more of:

ferroelectric ceramic, perovskite-type, KDP-type, or TGS-type nanowires or nanoparticles.

56. A composite material as in claim 55, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles comprise one or more of:

BaTiO3, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, KNbO3, PbTiO3, LiTiO3, LiTaO3, LiNbO3, Ba(1-x)CaxTiO3 where x is between 0 and 1, PbTi(1-x)ZrxO3 where x is between 0 and 1, KH2PO4, KD2PO4, RbH2PO4, RbH2AsO4, KH2AsO4, GeTe, tri-glycine sulfate, or tri-glycine selenate nanowires or nanoparticles.

57. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more polymers comprise one or more of:

an inorganic polymer, a polysiloxane, a polycarbonessiloxane, a polyphosphazene, an organic polymer, a thermoplastic polymer, a polyolefin, a polyester, a polysilicone, a polyacrylonitrile resin, a polystyrene resin, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polyvinyl acetate, a fluoroplastic, a thermosetting polymer, a phenolic resin, a urea resin, a melamine resin, an epoxy resin, a polyurethane resin, an engineering plastic, a polyamide, a polyacrylate resin, a polyketone, a polyimide, a polysulfone, a polycarbonate, a polyacetal, a liquid crystal polymer, a main chain liquid crystal polymer, poly(hydroxynapthoic acid), a side chain liquid crystal polymer, or poly<

n-((4′

(4″

-cyanphenyl)phenoxy)alkyl)vinyl ether>

.

58. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the small molecule or molecular matrix comprises one or more of:

N,N′

-diphenyl-N,N′

-bis(3-methylphenyl)-(1,1′

biphenyl)-4,4′

-diamine);

(3-(4-biphenyl)-4-phenyl-5-tert-butylphenyl-1,2,4-triazole);

tris-(8-hydroxyquinoline) aluminum;

benzoic acid;

phthalic acid;

benzoin;

hydroxyphenol;

nitrophenol;

chlorophenol;

chloroaniline;

or chlorobenzoamide.

59. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the matrix comprises one or more additives.

60. A composite material as in claim 59, wherein the one or more additives comprise one or more of:

a surfactant, a plasticizer, a catalyst, an antioxidant, or a strengthening fiber.

61. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles are included in sufficient quantity that the composite material has a dielectric constant of at least about 2, at least about 5, or at least about 10.

62. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles are included in the composite in an amount greater than 0% and less than about 90% by volume.

63. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires have an average diameter between about 2 nm and about 100 nm, between about 2 nm and about 5 nm, or between about 10 nm and about 50 nm.

64. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires have an aspect ratio between about 1.5 and about 10000, between about 1.5 and about 10, between about 10 and about 20, between about 20 and about 50, between about 50 and about 10,000, or between about 100 and about 10,000.

65. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanoparticles have an average diameter less than about 200 nm.

66. A composite material as in claim 54, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanoparticles have an aspect ratio between about 0.9 and about 1.2.

67. A film formed from a composite material as described in claim 54.

68. A substrate to which a composite material as in claim 54 has been applied.

69. A substrate as in claim 68, wherein the substrate comprises silicon, glass, an oxide, a metal, or a plastic.

70. A composition comprising particles of the composite material as in claim 54, at least one solvent, and at least one glue agent.

71. A composition as in claim 70, wherein the particles of the composite material have an average diameter between about 20 nm and about 20 micrometers.

72. A composition as in claim 70, wherein the glue agent is a polymer.

73. A film formed from a composition as described in claim 70.

74. A composition comprising one or more discrete, preformed ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles, at least one solvent, and one or more polymers.

75. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles comprise one or more of:

ferroelectric ceramic, perovskite-type, KDP-type, or TGS-type nanowires or nanoparticles.

76. A composition as in claim 75, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles comprise one or more of:

BaTiO3, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, KNbO3, PbTiO3, LiTiO3, LiTaO3, LiNbO3, Ba(1-x)CaxTiO3 where x is between 0 and 1, PbTi(1-x)ZrxO3 where x is between 0 and 1, KH2PO4, KD2PO4, RbH2PO4, RbH2AsO4, KH2AsO4, GeTe, tri-glycine sulfate, or tri-glycine selenate nanowires or nanoparticles.

77. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the one or more polymers comprise one or more of:

an inorganic polymer, a polysiloxane, a polycarbonessiloxane, a polyphosphazene, an organic polymer, a thermoplastic polymer, a polyolefin, a polyester, a polysilicone, a polyacrylonitrile resin, a polystyrene resin, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polyvinyl acetate, a fluoroplastic, a thermosetting polymer, a phenolic resin, a urea resin, a melamine resin, an epoxy resin, a polyurethane resin, an engineering plastic, a polyamide, a polyacrylate resin, a polyketone, a polyimide, a polysulfone, a polycarbonate, a polyacetal, a liquid crystal polymer, a main chain liquid crystal polymer, poly(hydroxynapthoic acid), a side chain liquid crystal polymer, or poly<

n-((4′

(4″

-cyanphenyl)phenoxy)alkyl)vinyl ether>

.

78. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires have an average diameter between about 2 nm and about 100 nm, between about 2 nm and about 5 nm, or between about 10 nm and about 50 nm.

79. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the one or more ferroelectric nanowires have an aspect ratio between about 1.5 and about 10000, between about 1.5 and about 10, between about 10 and about 20, between about 20 and about 50, between about 50 and about 10,000, or between about 100 and about 10,000.

80. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the one or more polymers are soluble in the at least one solvent.

81. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the one or more polymers comprise emulsion polymerized polymer particles suspended in the at least one solvent.

82. A composition as in claim 81, further comprising at least one glue agent.

83. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the one or more polymers comprise oligomers soluble in the at least one solvent.

84. A composition as in claim 83, further comprising at least one cross-linking agent.

85. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the at least one solvent is water or an organic solvent.

86. A composition as in claim 74, further comprising at least one surfactant.

87. A composition as in claim 86, wherein the at least one surfactant is selected from the group consisting of a cationic surfactant, an anionic surfactant, and a nonionic surfactant.

88. A composition as in claim 74, further comprising at least one humectant.

89. A composition as in claim 88, wherein the at least one humectant is selected from the group consisting of a glycol, a diol, a sulfoxide, a sulfone, an amide, and an alcohol.

90. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the composition is a liquid suitable for use as an inkjet printing ink or a paste suitable for use as a screen printing ink.

91. A composition as in claim 74, wherein the composition has a consistency that makes the composition suitable for applying to a surface by brushing or by spraying.

92. A substrate to which a composition as in claim 74 has been applied.

93. A substrate as in claim 92, wherein the substrate comprises silicon, glass, an oxide, a metal, or a plastic.

94. A film formed from a composition as described in claim 74.

95. A composition, comprising one or more discrete, preformed ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles and at least one monomeric precursor of at least one polymer.

96. A composition as in claim 95, wherein the ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles comprise one or more of:

ferroelectric ceramic, perovskite-type, KDP-type, or TGS-type nanowires or nanoparticles.

97. A composition as in claim 96, wherein the ferroelectric nanowires or nanoparticles comprise one or more of:

BaTiO3, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, KNbO3, PbTiO3, LiTiO3, LiTaO3, LiNbO3, Ba(1-x)CaxTiO3 where x is between 0 and 1, PbTi(1-x)ZrxO3 where x is between 0 and 1, KH2PO4, KD2PO4, RbH2PO4, RbH2AsO4, KH2AsO4, GeTe, tri-glycine sulfate, or tri-glycine selenate nanowires or nanoparticles.

98. A composition as in claim 95, further comprising at least one solvent.

99. A composition as in claim 95, further comprising at least one catalyst.

100. A substrate to which a composition as in claim 95 has been applied.

101. A substrate as in claim 100, wherein the substrate comprises silicon, glass, an oxide, a metal, or a plastic.

102. A film formed from a composition as described in claim 95.

103. A composite material, comprising:

a small molecule or molecular matrix or a matrix comprising at least one inorganic glass; and

one or more discrete, preformed branched nanowires, one or more discrete, preformed inorganic nanowires, or a combination thereof, wherein the one or more inorganic nanowires are selected from the group consisting of semiconducting inorganic nanowires and ferroelectric inorganic nanowires, and wherein the one or more inorganic nanowires have an aspect ratio greater than about 10.