Polymeric acid catalysts and uses thereof

• US 8,466,242 B2
• Filed: 02/27/2012
• Issued: 06/18/2013
• Est. Priority Date: 02/28/2011
• Status: Active Grant

• Current Assignee: DSM Nutritional Products LLC (DSM-Firmenich AG)
• Original Assignee: Midori Renewables Inc. (DSM-Firmenich AG)
• Inventors: Dhawan, Ashish, Geremia, John M., Baynes, Brian M.
• Primary Examiner(s): Choi, Ling
• Assistant Examiner(s): WANG, CHUN CHENG
• Application Number:
  US13/406,517
• Publication Number:
  US 20120220740A1
• Time in Patent Office: 477 Days
• Field of Search: 526/274, 252/182.12, 423/488, 423/579, 523/201
• US Class Current: 526/274
• CPC Class Codes: B01J 31/06 containing polymers organometallic polymers B01J31/123; polymer-bound organometallic complexes B01J31/165; coordination polymers B01J31/1691
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 12/18 Chlorine
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 212/08 Styrene
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 212/18 Chlorine
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 212/22 Oxygen
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 212/30 Sulfur
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 212/36 Divinylbenzene
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 226/06 by a heterocyclic ring containing nitrogen
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 226/08 N-Vinyl-pyrrolidine
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 8/24 Haloalkylation
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 8/30 Introducing nitrogen atoms or nitrogen-containing groups
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 8/32 by reaction with amines
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 8/36 Sulfonation; Sulfation
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 8/40 Introducing phosphorus atoms or phosphorus-containing groups
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 8/42 Introducing metal atoms or metal-containing groups
• CPC Class Codes: C08F 8/44 Preparation of metal salts or ammonium salts
• CPC Class Codes: C08G 8/28 Chemically modified polycondensates
• CPC Class Codes: C08H 8/00 Macromolecular compounds derived from lignocellulosic materials pretreatment thereof B27N
• CPC Class Codes: Y02E 50/10 Biofuels, e.g. bio-diesel

Abstract

Polymers useful as catalysts in non-enzymatic saccharification processes are provided. Provided are also methods for hydrolyzing cellulosic materials into monosaccharides and/or oligosaccharides using these polymeric acid catalysts.

Claims

1. A polymer comprising acidic monomers and ionic monomers connected to form a polymeric backbone,

wherein each acidic monomer independently comprises at least one Bronsted-Lowry acid, wherein one or more of the acidic monomers comprises a linker connecting the at least one Bronsted-Lowry acid to the polymeric backbone,

wherein each ionic monomer independently comprises a nitrogen-containing cationic group or a phosphorous-containing cationic group, and wherein one or more of the ionic monomers comprises a linker connecting the nitrogen-containing cationic group or the phosphorous-containing cationic group to the polymeric backbone,

wherein the nitrogen-containing cationic group and the linker of an ionic monomer form a nitrogen-containing side chain, wherein each nitrogen-containing side chain is independently selected from the group consisting of:

2. The polymer of claim 1, wherein the at least one Bronsted-Lowry acid and the linker form an acidic side chain, wherein each acidic side chain is independently selected from the group consisting of:

3. The polymer of claim 2, wherein each acidic side chain is independently selected from:

4. The polymer of claim 2, wherein each acidic side chain is independently selected from:

5. The polymer of claim 2, wherein each acidic side chain is independently selected from:

6. The polymer of claim 1, further comprising acidic-ionic monomers connected to form the polymeric backbone, wherein each acidic-ionic monomer independently comprises a Bronsted-Lowry acid and a cationic group, and wherein one or more of the acidic-ionic monomers comprises a linker connecting the Bronsted-Lowry acid or the cationic group to the polymeric backbone.

7. The polymer of claim 6, wherein the linker of each acidic-ionic monomer is independently selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted or substituted alkylene, unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkylene, unsubstituted or substituted alkenylene, unsubstituted or substituted arylene, unsubstituted or substituted heteroarylene, unsubstituted or substituted alkylene ether, unsubstituted or substituted alkylene ester, and unsubstituted or substituted alkylene carbamate.

8. The polymer of claim 6, wherein the Bronsted-Lowry acid, the cationic group and the linker form an acidic-ionic side chain, wherein each acidic-ionic side chain is independently selected from the group consisting of:

9. The polymer of claim 8, wherein each acidic-ionic side chain is independently selected from:

10. The polymer of claim 8, wherein each acidic-ionic side chain is independently selected from:

11. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each ionic monomer further independently comprises a counterion for a nitrogen-containing cationic group or a phosphorous-containing cationic group present in the polymer.

12. The polymer of claim 11, wherein the counterion at each occurrence is independently selected from the group consisting of halide, nitrate, sulfate, formate, acetate, or organosulfonate.

13. The polymer of claim 1, wherein the polymer is selected from the group consisting of:

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-ethyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-ethyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-ethyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-benzoimidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-benzoimidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-benzoimidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-chloride-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-bisulfate-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-acetate-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-methyl-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholin-4-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-methyl-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholin-4-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-methyl-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholin-4-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triphenyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-phosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triphenyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-phosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triphenyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-phosphonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-piperidin-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-piperidin-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-piperidin-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholine-4-oxide-co-divinyl benzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triethyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-ammonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triethyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-ammonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triethyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-ammonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-4-boronyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-1-(4-vinylphenyl)methylphosphonic acid-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-1-(4-vinylphenyl)methylphosphonic acid-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-1-(4-vinylphenyl)methylphosphonic acid-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylchloride-co-1-methyl-2-vinyl-pyridinium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylchloride-co-1-methyl-2-vinyl-pyridinium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylchloride-co-1-methyl-2-vinyl-pyridinium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholine-4-oxide-co-divinyl benzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylphenylphosphonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylphenylphosphonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylphenylphosphonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-carboxymethyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-carboxymethyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-carboxymethyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-5-(4-vinylbenzylamino)-isophthalic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-5-(4-vinylbenzylamino)-isophthalic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-5-(4-vinylbenzylamino)-isophthalic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-(4-vinylbenzylamino)-acetic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-(4-vinylbenzylamino)-acetic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-(4-vinylbenzylamino)-acetic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium acetate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium chloride-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium chloride-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium bisulfate-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium bisulfate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium bisulfate-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium bisulfate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium acetate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium acetate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium chloride-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium chloride-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium bisulfate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium bisulfate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium acetate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium acetate-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene)

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium acetate-co-divinylbenzene).

14. The polymer of claim 13, wherein the polymer is selected from:

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-chloride-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylchloride-co-1-methyl-2-vinyl-pyridinium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene]; and

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-divinylbenzene).

15. The polymer of claim 13, wherein the polymer is selected from:

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-benzoimidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium chloride-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene); and

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholine-4-oxide-co-divinyl benzene].

16. The polymer of claim 13, wherein the polymer is selected from:

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholine-4-oxide-co-divinyl benzene];

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium iodide-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triphenyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-phosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene]; and

poly[styrene-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-1-(4-vinylphenyl)methylphosphonic acid-co-divinylbenzene].

17. The polymer of claim 1, wherein the polymer has one or more catalytic properties.

18. The polymer of claim 17, wherein the one or more catalytic properties are selected from the group consisting of:

a) disruption of a hydrogen bond in cellulosic materials;

b) intercalation of the polymer into crystalline domains of cellulosic materials; and

c) cleavage of a glycosidic bond in cellulosic materials.

19. The polymer of claim 1, wherein the linker of each acidic monomer is independently selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted or substituted alkylene, unsubstituted or substituted cycloalkylene, unsubstituted or substituted alkenylene, unsubstituted or substituted arylene, unsubstituted or substituted heteroarylene, unsubstituted or substituted alkylene ether, unsubstituted or substituted alkylene ester, and unsubstituted or substituted alkylene carbamate.

20. The polymer of claim 1, wherein the polymeric backbone is selected from the group consisting of polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl alcohol, polystyrene, polyurethane, polyvinyl chloride, polyphenol-aldehyde, polytetrafluoroethylene, polybutylene terephthalate, polycaprolactam, poly(acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), polyalkenylammonium, polyalkenylpyrrolium, polyalkenylimidazolium, polyalkenylpyrazolium, polyalkenyloxazolium, polyalkenylthiazolium, polyalkenylpyridinium, polyalkenylpyrimidinium, polyalkenylpyrazinium, polyalkenylpyradizimium, polyalkenylthiazinium, polyalkenylmorpholinium, polyalkenylpiperidinium, polyalkenylpiperizinium, polyalkenylpyrollizinium, polyalkenyltriphenylphosphonium, polyalkenyltrimethylphosphonium, polyalkenyltriethylphosphonium, polyalkenyltripropylphosphonium, polyalkenyltributylphosphonium, polyalkenyltrichlorophosphonium, and polyalkenyltrifluorophosphonium.

21. The polymer of claim 1, wherein the polymer is cross-linked.

22. The polymer of claim 1, wherein the polymer is selected from:

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium nitrate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium iodide-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-benzoimidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-pyridinium-chloride-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-methyl-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholin-4-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholine-4-oxide-co-divinyl benzene];

poly[styrene-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium bisulfate-co-1-(4-vinylphenyl)methylphosphonic acid-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylchloride-co-1-methyl-2-vinyl-pyridinium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-4-(4-vinylbenzyl)-morpholine-4-oxide-co-divinyl benzene];

poly[styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-triphenyl-(4-vinylbenzyl)-phosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene];

poly[styrene-co-5-(4-vinylbenzylamino)-isophthalic acid-co-3-methyl-1-(4-vinylbenzyl)-3H-imidazol-1-ium chloride-co-divinylbenzene];

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzylmethylimidazolium chloride-co-vinylbenzylmethylmorpholinium chloride-co-vinylbenzyltriphenyl phosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylmethylimidazolium acetate-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene);

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenephosphonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium bisulfate-co-divinylbenzene); and

poly(styrene-co-4-vinylbenzenesulfonic acid-co-vinylbenzyltriphenylphosphonium chloride-co-divinylbenzene).

23. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each nitrogen-containing side chain is independently selected from:

24. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each nitrogen-containing side chain is independently selected from:

25. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each nitrogen-containing side chain is independently selected from:

26. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each nitrogen-containing side chain is independently selected from:

27. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each nitrogen-containing side chain is independently selected from:

28. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each nitrogen-containing side chain is independently selected from:

29. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each phosphorous-containing side chain is independently selected from:

30. The polymer of claim 1, wherein each phosphorous-containing side chain is independently selected from: