Device structure for closely spaced electrodes

• US 20040023253A1
• Filed: 12/26/2002
• Published: 02/05/2004
• Est. Priority Date: 06/11/2001
• Status: Abandoned Application

• Current Assignee: Genorx, Inc.
• Original Assignee: Genorx, Inc.
• Inventors: Mathai, George T., Kunwar, Sandeep
• Application Number:
  US10/335,482
• Publication Number:
  US 20040023253A1
• Time in Patent Office: Days
• US Class Current: 435/6
• CPC Class Codes: B82Y 10/00 Nanotechnology for information processing, storage or transmission, e.g. quantum computing or single electron logic
• CPC Class Codes: C12Q 1/003 Functionalisation
• CPC Class Codes: C12Q 1/6825 Nucleic acid detection involving sensors
• CPC Class Codes: C12Q 2565/607 being a sensor, e.g. electrode
• CPC Class Codes: F41H 11/12 Means for clearing land minefields; Systems specially adapted for detection of landmines
• CPC Class Codes: G01N 27/27 Association of two or more measuring systems or cells, each measuring a different parameter, where the measurement results may be either used independently, the systems or cells being physically associated, or combined to produce a value for a further parameter
• CPC Class Codes: G01N 27/3276 being a hybridisation with immobilised receptors using a FET type sensor G01N27/4145; concerning the hybridisation C12Q1/68
• CPC Class Codes: G01N 33/5438 Electrodes
• CPC Class Codes: G11C 13/0014 comprising cells based on organic memory material
• CPC Class Codes: G11C 13/0019 comprising bio-molecules

Abstract

A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate. Each device in the plurality of devices occupying a different region on the substrate. Each device in the plurality of devices comprises a first electrically conducting material, a spacer, and a second electrically conducting material. The first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region on the substrate occupied by a device and the spacer is overlaid on a second portion of the different region on the substrate that is occupied by the device. The first electrically conducting material and the spacer abut each other. The second electrically conducting material is overlaid on a portion of the spacer.

Claims

2. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region on said substrate occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region on said substrate that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said substrate does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said substrate; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on at least a portion of said spacer.

23. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising a different cavity in said insulator layer, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is in said different cavity of said device;

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on said insulator layer outside of said different cavity associated with said device; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material.

24. The biosensor of claim 23 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

25. The biosensor of claim 23 wherein said different cavity associated with a device in said plurality of devices has a width between 900 Angstroms and 20,000 Angstroms.

26. The biosensor of claim 23 wherein said different cavity associated with each device in said plurality of devices has a width between 500 Angstroms and 900 Angstroms.

27. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by the device; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said insulator does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said insulator.

29. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material of a device in said plurality of devices are separated by a distance between 60 Angstroms and 500 Angstroms.

30. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein a passivation layer overlays a portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

31. The biosensor of claim 30 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

32. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein a first passivation layer overlays a portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second passivation layer overlays a portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

33. The biosensor of claim 32 wherein said first passivation layer and said second passivation layer each independently comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

34. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

35. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a side portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

36. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a top portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

37. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein said second electrically conducting material is thicker than said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

38. The biosensor of claim 27 or 28 wherein said second electrically conducting material and said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices have the same thickness.

39. The biosensor of claim 27 wherein

said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices are separated by a distance, and

there is a gap in said insulator layer between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in said device.

40. The biosensor of claim 39 wherein said gap has a width of between 60 Angstroms and 500 Angstroms.

41. The biosensor of claim 38 wherein said gap has a width that exceeds a distance that separates said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material of said device.

42. The biosensor of claim 38 wherein said gap has a width that is between 60 Angstroms and 10,000 Angstroms.

43. The biosensor of claim 38 wherein said gap has a width that is between 60 Angstroms and 30,000 Angstroms.

44. The biosensor of claim 38, wherein said gap has a width that is between 60 Angstroms and 100,000 Angstroms.

28. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by the device; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said substrate does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said substrate.

45. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said insulator layer occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material, wherein said spacer comprises a thin segment and a thick segment and wherein said thin segment of said spacer is not as thick as said thick segment of said spacer;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material.

47. The biosensor of claim 45 or 46 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

48. The biosensor of claim 45 or 46 wherein a distance between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices is between 60 Angstroms and 103 Angstroms.

49. The biosensor of claim 45 or 46 wherein a distance between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices is between 80 Angstroms and 300 Angstroms.

50. The biosensor of claim 45 or 46 wherein a distance between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices is between 100 Angstroms and 200 Angstroms.

51. The biosensor of claim 45 or 46 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a side portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

52. The biosensor of claim 45 or 46 wherein

said thin segment of said spacer in a device in said plurality of devices comprises a cavity, and wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a bottom portion of said second electrically conducting material in said cavity.

53. The biosensor of claim 45 or 46 wherein

a portion of the upper surface of said second electrically conducting material is not covered by said passivation layer;

and

a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a side portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to said portion of the upper surface of said second electrically conducting material that is not covered by said passivation layer.

98. The biosensor of claim 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70 or 71 wherein a portion of said first electrically conducting material and a portion of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is less than 150 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

99. The biosensor of claim 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70 or 71 wherein a portion of said first electrically conducting material and a portion of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is less than 100 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

100. The biosensor of claim 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70 or 71 wherein a portion of said first electrically conducting material and a portion of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is between 50 Angstroms and 80 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

46. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said substrate occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material, wherein said spacer comprises a thin segment and a thick segment and wherein said thin segment of said spacer is not as thick as said thick segment of said spacer;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material.

54. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said insulator layer occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaying a portion of said first electrically conducting material;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer and protruding past an end of said spacer, over said first electrically conducting material, so that a gap is formed from an end of the first electrically conducting material and the portion of said second electrically conducting material that protrudes past said end of said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material.

56. The biosensor of claim 54 or 55 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

57. The biosensor of claim 54 or 55 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a side portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

58. The biosensor of claim 54 or 55 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a bottom portion of said second electrically conducting material in said cavity in a device in said plurality of devices.

59. The biosensor of claim 54 or 55 wherein

a portion of the upper surface of said second electrically conducting material is not covered by said passivation layer;

and

a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a side portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to said portion of the upper surface of said second electrically conducting material that is not covered by said passivation layer.

55. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said substrate occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaying a portion of said first electrically conducting material;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer and protruding past an end of said spacer, over said first electrically conducting material, so that a gap is formed from an end of the first electrically conducting material and the portion of said second electrically conducting material that protrudes past said end of said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material.

60. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a second electrically conducting material that abuts a side-wall of said spacer facing said first electrically conducting material; and

a first passivation layer that covers (i) the top of said spacer, (ii) a first side of said second electrically conducting material, and (iii) a portion of a second side of said second electrically conducting material.

62. The biosensor of claim 60 or 61 wherein said first passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

63. The biosensor of claim 60 or 61 wherein a second passivation layer overlays said first electrically conducting material.

64. The biosensor of claim 63 wherein said second passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

65. The biosensor of claim 60 or 61 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side-wall of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

66. The biosensor of claim 60 or 61 wherein

a second passivation layer overlays a portion of said first electrically conducting material;

and

a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material that is not covered by said second passivation layer and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side-wall of said second electrically conducting material.

67. The biosensor of claim 66 wherein said second passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

68. The biosensor of claim 60 wherein said insulator comprises a gap that is between said first electrically conducting material and said spacer.

69. The biosensor of claim 60 or 61 wherein said spacer comprises a crevice that exposes a portion of said second electrically conducting material.

61. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of said substrate does not overlap with said second portion of said substrate;

a second electrically conducting material that abuts a side-wall of said spacer facing said first electrically conducting material; and

a first passivation layer that covers (i) the top of said spacer, (ii) a first side of said second electrically conducting material, and (iii) a portion of a second side of said second electrically conducting material.

70. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, the spacer including a main body and an extended portion, wherein said extended portion of said spacer abuts said first electrically conducting material and wherein said first portion of said insulator layer does not overlap with said second portion of said insulator layer;

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on said main body of said spacer; and

a first passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material.

72. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein said first passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

73. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein a second passivation layer overlays said first electrically conducting material.

74. The biosensor of claim 73 wherein said second passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

75. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side-wall of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

76. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein a second passivation layer overlays a portion of said first electrically conducting material and wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material that is not covered by said first passivation layer and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

77. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein said extended portion of said spacer has a width of more than 200 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

78. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein said extended portion of said spacer has a width of more than 500 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

79. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein said extended portion of said spacer has a width between 25 Angstroms and 700 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

80. The biosensor of claim 70 or 71 wherein said extended portion of said spacer comprises a gap in a device in said plurality of devices.

81. The biosensor of claim 80 wherein said main portion of said spacer comprises a crevice that exposes a bottom portion of said second electrically conductive material.

82. The biosensor of claim 81 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to an upper surface of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material.

83. The biosensor of claim 80 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to side-wall of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a portion of said second electrically conducting material that is exposed by said crevice.

71. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device, the spacer including a main body and an extended portion, wherein said extended portion of said spacer abuts said first electrically conducting material and wherein said first portion of said substrate does not overlap with said second portion of said substrate;

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on said main body of said spacer; and

a first passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material.

84. A biosensor comprising:

a substrate;

an insulator layer overlaid on said substrate, wherein

said insulator layer comprises a plurality of steps, and a first step in said plurality of steps is at a different height, with respect to said substrate, than a second step in said plurality of steps;

a different electrically conducting layer is overlaid on each step in said plurality of steps; and

each said different electrically conducting layer overlaid on a step in said plurality of steps is electrically insulated from all other electrically conducting layers in said biosensor.

85. The biosensor of claim 84 wherein each electrically conducting layer in said biosensor is addressable by an electrical source.

86. The biosensor of claim 84 wherein an electrically conducting layer associated with a step in said plurality of steps is electrically insulated from all other electrically conducting layers in said biosensor by a cavity in the step.

87. The biosensor of claim 84 wherein the difference in height, with respect to said substrate, between a first step in said plurality of steps and a second step in said plurality of steps is between 60 Angstroms and 200 Angstroms.

88. The biosensor of claim 84 wherein the difference in height, with respect to said substrate, between a first step in said plurality of steps and a second step in said plurality of steps is less than 500 Angstroms.

89. The biosensor of claim 84 wherein the difference in height, with respect to said substrate, between a first step in said plurality of steps and a second step in said plurality of steps is less than 1000 Angstroms.

90. The biosensor of claim 84 wherein said first step and said second step are adjacent to each other and a first portion of a macromolecule binds to said first step in said plurality of steps and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to said second step.

117. A method of manufacturing a biosensor, the method comprising:

(a) depositing a first insulator layer onto a substrate;

(b) depositing a second insulator layer on said first insulator layer;

(c) patterning said second insulator layer, thereby forming a spacer and exposing a portion of said first insulator layer;

(d) depositing electrically conducting material on said spacer and said portion of said first insulator layer that is exposed;

(e) patterning said electrically conducting material deposited on said portion of said first insulator layer to form a first electrically conducting material; and

(f) patterning said electrically conducting material deposited on said spacer to form a second electrically conducting material.

118. The method of claim 117 wherein said depositing step (a) is performed by thermal oxidation of silicon, chemical vapor deposition, reduced pressure chemical vapor deposition, low pressure chemical vapor deposition, atmospheric chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, anodization, sol-gel deposition, plasma spraying, ink jet printing, sputter deposition, vacuum evaporation, laser ablated deposition, atomic layer deposition, molecular beam deposition, ion beam deposition, hot filament chemical vapor deposition or screen printing.

119. The method of claim 117 wherein said depositing step (b) is performed by chemical vapor deposition, reduced pressure chemical vapor deposition, low pressure chemical vapor deposition, atmospheric chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, anodization, sol-gel deposition, plasma spraying, ink jet printing, sputter deposition, vacuum evaporation, laser ablated deposition, atomic layer deposition, molecular beam deposition, ion beam deposition, hot filament chemical vapor deposition or screen printing.

120. The method of claim 117 wherein said depositing step (b) comprises chemical vapor deposition of silicon oxide or silicon nitride.

121. The method of claim 117 wherein said patterning step (c) comprises:

application of a photolithographic photoresist coating to said second insulator layer;

optical imaging of said photolithographic photoresist coating through an optical mask;

developing said photolithographic photoresist coating;

etching said spacer; and

removing said photolithographic photoresist coating.

122. The method of claim 121 wherein said photolithographic photoresist coating is a negative resist or a positive resist.

123. The method of claim 121 wherein said photolithographic photoresist coating is an azide/isoprene negative resist, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polymethylisopropyl ketone (PMIPK), poly-butene-1-sulfone (PBS), poly-(trifluoroethyl chloroacrylate) TFECA, copolymer-(α

-cyano ethyl acrylate-α

-amido ethyl acrylate) (COP), poly-(2-methyl pentene-1-sulfone) (PMPS), phenol-formaldehyde novolak resin, or polydimethylglutarimide.

124. The method of claim 121 wherein said photolithographic photoresist coating is developed by exposing said photolithographic photoresist coating to xylene, Stoddart solvent, n-butlyl acetate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or tetramethylammonium hydroxide.

125. The method of claim 121 wherein said etching said spacer comprises wet etching, wet spray etching, vapor etching, plasma etching, ion beam etching or reactive ion etching.

126. The method of claim 121 wherein said removing said photolithographic photoresist coating comprises exposing said photolithographic photoresist coating to a strong acid, an acid-oxidant combination, an organic solvent stripper, or an alkaline stripper.

127. The method of claim 117 wherein said depositing step (d) is performed by chemical vapor deposition, reduced pressure chemical vapor deposition, low pressure chemical vapor deposition, atmospheric chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, anodization, sol-gel deposition, plasma spraying, ink jet printing, direct current diode sputtering, radio frequency diode sputtering, direct current magnetron sputtering, radio frequency magnetron sputtering, vacuum evaporation, collimated sputtering, laser ablated deposition, atomic layer deposition, molecular beam deposition, ionized physical vapor deposition, ion beam deposition, atomic layer deposition, hot filament chemical vapor deposition, screen printing, electroless metal deposition, electroplating, or electroless/immersion gold.

128. The method of claim 117 wherein said patterning step (e) and said patterning step (f) each comprises:

(i) applying a photolithographic photoresist coating to said electrically conducting material;

(ii) optically imaging said photolithographic photoresist coating through an optical mask;

(iii) developing said photolithographic photoresist coating;

(iv) etching said electrically conducting material; and

(v) removing said photolithographic photoresist coating.

129. The method of claim 128 wherein said photolithographic photoresist coating is a negative resist or a positive resist.

130. The method of claim 128 wherein said photolithographic photoresist coating is an azide/isoprene negative resist, polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polymethylisopropyl ketone (PMIPK), poly-butene-1-sulfone (PBS), poly-(trifluoroethyl chloroacrylate) TFECA, copolymer-(α

-cyano ethyl acrylate-α

-amido ethyl acrylate) (COP), poly-(2-methyl pentene-1-sulfone) (PMPS), phenol-formaldehyde novolak resin, or polydimethylglutarimide.

131. The method of claim 128 wherein said photolithographic photoresist coating is developed by exposure to xylene, Stoddart solvent, n-butlyl acetate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, or tetramethylammonium hydroxide.

132. The method of claim 128 wherein said etching step (iv) comprises wet etching, wet spray etching, vapor etching, plasma etching, ion beam etching or reactive ion etching.

133. The method of claim 128 wherein said removing step (v) comprises exposing said photolithographic photoresist coating to a strong acid, an acid-oxidant combination, an organic solvent stripper, or an alkaline stripper.

134. The method of claim 117 wherein said depositing step (d) is performed by chemical vapor deposition,

135. The method of claim 117, wherein said depositing step (d) is performed by depositing material at an angle with respect to the substrate.

136. The method of claim 135, wherein said angle is between 0 radians and 2π

radians.

137. The method of claim 135, wherein said angle is π

/2 radians.

138. A method of processing a biosensor, the method comprising:

(a) etching a stack, the stack comprising

a substrate;

a first insulator layer overlaid on said substrate;

a first electrically conducting material overlaid on said first insulator layer;

a passivation layer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material; and

a sacrificial insulator layer overlaid on said passivation layer;

wherein said etching forms a cavity that extends through said sacrificial insulator layer, said passivation layer, said first electrically conducting material, and said first insulator layer;

(b) forming a second insulator layer at a bottom of said cavity;

(c) depositing a second electrically conducting material on said second insulator layer; and

(d) removing said sacrificial insulator layer overlaid on said passivation layer.

139. The method of claim 138 wherein said etching step (a) comprises a wet etching process, a wet spray etching technique, a vapor etching process, plasma etching, ion beam etching, or reactive ion etching.

140. The method of claim 138 wherein said substrate is made out of silicon and said forming a second insulator layer comprises growing silicon oxide on said substrate.

141. The method of claim 138 wherein said depositing step (c) comprises depositing at an angle with respect to said substrate.

142. The method of claim 141 wherein said angle is between 0 degrees and 180 degrees.

143. The method of claim 141 wherein said angle is ninety degrees.

144. A biosensor comprising:

a substrate;

a first insulator layer overlaid on said substrate;

a first electrically conducting material overlaid on said insulator;

a passivation layer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material;

a plurality of devices;

wherein each device in said plurality of devices comprises;

a cavity that extends through said passivation layer, said first electrically conducting material, and said first insulator layer;

a second insulator layer in said cavity; and

a second electrically conducting material on said second insulator layer.

145. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first insulator layer has a thickness that is between 10 Angstroms and 10,000 Angstroms.

146. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first insulator layer has a thickness that is between 100 Angstroms and 2000 Angstroms.

147. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first insulator layer has a thickness that is between 400 Angstroms and 800 Angstroms and wherein said first insulator layer comprises silicon oxide.

148. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first insulator layer has a thickness that is between 400 Angstroms and 800 Angstroms.

149. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said substrate comprises silicon, silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, Teflon, alumina, glass, sapphire, a selinide, or polyester.

150. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material each has a resistivity less than 10-6 ohm-meters.

151. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material are comprised of the same composition.

152. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material are comprised of different compositions.

153. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material comprises aluminum, nickel, platinum, iron, copper, silver, gold, indium tin oxide, chromium, titanium, zinc, tin, an alloy of aluminum, an alloy of nickel, an alloy of platinum, an alloy of iron, an alloy of copper, an alloy of silver, an alloy of gold, an alloy of chromium, an alloy of titanium, an alloy of zinc, or an alloy of tin.

154. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material comprises a metal carbide, a metal nitride, a metal boride, a conductive oxide, a metal silicide or a metal sulfide.

155. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first insulator layer comprises a material having a resistivity greater than 10⁻

1 ohm-meters.

156. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first insulator layer comprises TiO, ZrO₂, Al₂O₃, CaF₂, Cr₂O₃, Er₂O₃, HfO₂, MgF₂, MgO, Si₃N₄, SnO₂, SiO₂, quartz, porcelain, tantalum pentoxide, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, ceramic, polystyrene, Teflon, insulating carbon derivatives, glass, clay, polystyrene or a high resistivity plastic.

157. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material has a thickness between 50 Angstroms and 1000 Angstroms.

158. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material has a thickness between 100 Angstroms and 600 Angstroms.

159. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said first electrically conducting material has a thickness between 100 Angstroms and 600 Angstroms and wherein said first electrically conducting material is made of platinum or gold.

160. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said passivation layer has a thickness that is less than 10 Angstroms.

161. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said passivation layer has a thickness between 10 Angstroms and 100 Angstroms.

162. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

163. The biosensor of claim 144 wherein an etch stop overlays said substrate and said first insulator layer overlays said etch stop.

164. The biosensor of claim 163 wherein said etch stop has a thickness that is between 40 Angstroms and 500 Angstroms.

165. The biosensor of claim 163 wherein a cavity in a device in said plurality of devices has a width of between 0.09 microns and 2.0 microns.

166. The biosensor of claim 163 wherein said cavity in a device in said plurality of devices has a width between 0.13 microns and 0.35 microns.

167. The biosensor of claim 163 wherein a distance from the top of said first electrically conducting material and the top of said second electrically conducting material is between 60 Angstroms and 200 Angstroms.

168. The biosensor of claim 163 wherein a distance from the top of said first electrically conducting material and the top of said second electrically conducting material is between 50 Angstroms and 300 Angstroms.

169. The biosensor of claim 163 wherein a distance from the top of said first electrically conducting material and the top of said second electrically conducting material is between 100 Angstroms and 250 Angstroms.

170. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, wherein

said substrate comprises a plurality of upper steps and a plurality of lower steps;

each upper step in the plurality of upper steps is associated with a lower step in the plurality of lower steps; and

for each device in said plurality of devices, a first electrically conducting material in the device overlays an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and a second electrically conducting material in the device overlays the lower step in said plurality of lower steps that is associated with the upper step.

171. The biosensor claim 170 wherein said substrate is sealed onto a die attach surface of a package body and said package body comprises a plurality of leads.

172. The biosensor of claim 171 wherein said package body is enclosed with an upper piece in a package.

173. The biosensor of claim 172 wherein said upper piece is ceramic.

174. The biosensor of claim 172 wherein said upper piece has an access hole.

175. The biosensor of claim 172 wherein said package is a dual in-line package, a single in-line package, or a ball grid array package.

176. The biosensor of claim 172 wherein said package is attached to a printed circuit board.

177. The biosensor of claim 176 wherein said printed circuit board is interfaced with a data acquisition card.

178. The biosensor of claim 176 wherein said printed circuit board is interfaced with a digital multimeter.

179. The biosensor of claim 171 the biosensor further comprising a plurality of bonding pads and a plurality of interconnects on said substrate, wherein

an interconnect in said plurality of interconnects joins a bonding pad in said plurality of bonding pads to a first electrically conducting material or a second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

180. The biosensor of claim 179 wherein a bonding pad in said plurality of bonding pads is connected to a lead in said plurality of leads.

181. The biosensor of claim 179 the biosensor further comprising a demultiplexer wherein said demultiplexer selectively connects a first electrically conducting material or a second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices to a bonding pad in said plurality of bonding pads.

182. The biosensor of claim 181 wherein said demultiplexer has a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor architecture.

183. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein an insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate and each device in said plurality of devices is overlaid on said insulator layer.

184. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is between 10 Angstroms and 10,000 Angstroms.

185. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is between 100 Angstroms and 1000 Angstroms.

186. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is between 200 Angstroms and 500 Angstroms.

187. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is between 300 Angstroms and 400 Angstroms.

188. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said plurality of devices comprises at least 100 devices.

189. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said plurality of devices comprises at least 10,000 devices.

190. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said plurality of devices comprises 10,000 to 105 devices.

191. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said plurality of devices comprises 10⁷ to 10⁹ devices.

192. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein a macromolecule binds to both a first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

193. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said substrate comprises silicon, silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, Teflon, alumina, glass, sapphire, a selinide, or polyester.

194. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material each has a resistivity less than 10⁻

6 ohm-meters in a device in said plurality of devices.

195. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material are comprised of the same composition in a device in said plurality of devices.

196. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material are comprised of different compositions in a device in said plurality of devices.

197. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said first electrically conducting material or said second electrically conducting material comprises aluminum, nickel, platinum, iron, copper, silver, gold, indium tin oxide, chromium, titanium, zinc, tin, an alloy of aluminum, an alloy of nickel, an alloy of platinum, an alloy of iron, an alloy of copper, an alloy of silver, an alloy of gold, an alloy of chromium, an alloy of titanium, an alloy of zinc or an alloy of tin in a device in said plurality of devices.

198. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said first electrically conducting material or said second electrically conducting material comprises a metal carbide, a metal nitride, a metal boride, a conductive oxide, a metal silicide or a metal sulfide in a device in said plurality of devices.

199. The biosensor of claim 170 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices is connected to external circuitry.

200. A method of manufacturing a packaged biosensor, the method comprising:

(a) depositing an electrically conducting layer onto a substrate, said substrate comprising a plurality of upper steps and a plurality of lower steps, wherein each upper step in said plurality of upper steps is associated with a lower step in the plurality of lower steps;

(b) patterning said electrically conducting layer to form a plurality of electrode pairs, a plurality of bonding pads, and a plurality of interconnects, wherein

an interconnect in said plurality of interconnects joins an electrode in said plurality of electrode pairs to a bonding pad in said plurality of bonding pads, and

each electrode pair comprises a first electrode and a second electrode, wherein said first electrode is on an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and said second electrode is on the lower step in said plurality of lower steps that is associated with said upper step;

(c) sealing said substrate to a die attach surface of a package body wherein said package body comprises a plurality of leads;

(d) attaching a bonding pad in said plurality of bonding pads to a lead in said plurality of leads; and

(e) enclosing said package body with an upper piece, thereby manufacturing said packaged biosensor.

201. The method of claim 200 wherein said upper piece is ceramic.

202. The method of claim 200 wherein said upper piece has an access hole.

203. The method of claim 200 wherein said enclosing step (e) comprises applying epoxy to said die attach surface and then placing said upper piece on said epoxy.

204. The method of claim 200, the method further comprising curing said biosensor.

205. The method of claim 204 wherein said curing comprises heating said biosensor in a curing oven.

206. The method of claim 200, the method further comprising depositing an insulation layer on said substrate prior to said depositing an electrically conducting layer onto said substrate.

207. The method of claim 200 wherein said patterning step (b) creates a plurality of die, each die comprising a plurality of electrode pairs, a plurality of bonding pads and a plurality of interconnects on said substrate, and wherein said method further comprises separating a die from said plurality of die.

208. The method of claim 207 wherein said separating comprises sawing.

209. The method of claim 200 wherein said sealing step (c) uses an epoxy die attachment technique.

210. The method of claim 200 wherein said sealing step (c) uses a eutectic die attachment technique.

211. The method of claim 200 wherein said attaching step (d) is repeated.

212. The method of claim 200 wherein said attaching step (d) uses a wire bonding technique, a flip-chip technique, or a beam-lead technique.

213. The method of claim 200 wherein said package body is a dual in-line package, single-in-line package, or a ball grid array package.

214. The method of claim 200 wherein said patterning step (b) also forms a demultiplexer and said demultiplexer selectively connects an electrode in said plurality of electrode pairs to a bonding pad in said plurality of bonding pads.

215. The method of claim 214 wherein said demultiplexer has a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor architecture.

216. The method of claim 200, the method further comprising attaching said biosensor to a printed circuit board.

217. The method of claim 216, the method further comprising interfacing said printed circuit board with a data acquisition card.

218. The method of claim 200, the method further comprising interfacing said biosensor with a data acquisition card.

219. The method of claim 200, the method further comprising interfacing said biosensor with a digital multimeter.

220. The method of claim 200, wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is between 60 Angstroms and 200 Angstroms.

221. The method of claim 200, wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is less than 500 Angstroms.

222. The method of claim 200, wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is less than 1000 Angstroms.

223. The method of claim 200, wherein an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and the lower step associated with said upper step are separated by a vertical distance that is between 300 Angstroms and 400 Angstroms.

224. The method of claim 200, wherein said plurality of electrode pairs comprises at least 100 electrode pairs.

225. The method of claim 200, wherein said plurality of electrode pairs comprises at least 10,000 electrode pairs.

226. The method of claim 200, wherein said plurality of electrode pairs comprises 10,000 to 10⁵ electrode pairs.

227. The method of claim 200, wherein said plurality of electrode pairs comprises 10⁷ to 10⁹ electrode pairs.

228. The method of claim 200, wherein a macromolecule binds to both a first electrode and a second electrode in an electrode pair in said plurality of electrode pairs.

229. The method of claim 200, wherein said substrate comprises silicon, silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, Teflon, alumina, glass, sapphire, a selinide, or polyester.

230. The method of claim 200 wherein said first electrode and said second electrode each has a resistivity less than 10⁻

6 ohm-meters in an electrode pair in said plurality of electrode pairs.

231. The method of claim 200 wherein a first electrode and a second electrode in an electrode pair in said plurality of electrode pairs are comprised of the same composition.

232. The method of claim 200 wherein a first electrode and a second electrode in an electrode pair in said plurality of electrode pairs are each comprised of a different composition.

233. The method of claim 200 wherein said first electrode or said second electrode in an electrode pair in said plurality of electrodes comprises aluminum, nickel, platinum, iron, copper, silver, gold, indium tin oxide, chromium, titanium, zinc, tin, an alloy of aluminum, an alloy of nickel, an alloy of platinum, an alloy of iron, an alloy of copper, an alloy of silver, an alloy of gold, an alloy of chromium, an alloy of titanium, an alloy of zinc or an alloy of tin.

234. The method of claim 200 wherein the first electrode or the second electrode comprises a metal carbide, a metal nitride, a metal boride, a conductive oxide, a metal silicide or a metal sulfide in an electrode pair in said plurality of electrode pairs.

235. The method of claim 200 wherein said patterning step (b) comprises:

(i) applying a photolithographic photoresist coating to said electrically conducting layer;

(ii) optically imaging said photolithographic photoresist coating through an optical mask;

(iii) developing said photolithographic photoresist coating;

(iv) etching said spacer; and

(v) removing said photolithographic photoresist coating.

236. The method of claim 200 wherein said depositing step (a) is performed by chemical vapor deposition, reduced pressure chemical vapor deposition, low pressure chemical vapor deposition, atmospheric chemical vapor deposition, plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition, anodization, sol-gel deposition, plasma spraying, ink jet printing, direct current diode sputtering, radio frequency diode sputtering, direct current magnetron sputtering, radio frequency magnetron sputtering, vacuum evaporation, collimated sputtering, laser ablated deposition, atomic layer deposition, molecular beam deposition, ionized physical vapor deposition, ion beam deposition, atomic layer deposition, hot filament chemical vapor deposition, screen printing, electroless metal deposition, electroplating, or electroless/immersion gold.

237. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

wherein said biosensor comprises a plurality of devices, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said insulator does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said insulator; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on at least a portion of said spacer, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

290. The method of claim 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249 or 250 wherein said electromagnetic property is direct electric current, alternating electric current, permitivity, resistivity, electron transfer, electron tunneling, electron hopping, electron transport, electron conductance, voltage, electrical impedance, signal loss, dissipation factor, resistance, capacitance, inductance, magnetic field, electrical potential, charge or magnetic potential.

311. The method of claim 237, 238, 239,240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, or 250 further comprising attaching said first portion of said macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material and said second protion of said macromolecule to said second electrically conducting material in said device in said plurality of devices prior to said detecting step (a).

238. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

wherein said biosensor comprises a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region on said substrate occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region on said substrate that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said substrate does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said substrate; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on at least a portion of said spacer, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

239. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by the device; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said insulator does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said insulator, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

240. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by the device; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said substrate does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said substrate, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

241. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said insulator layer occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material, wherein said spacer comprises a thin segment and a thick segment and wherein said thin segment of said spacer is not as thick as said thick segment of said spacer;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

242. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said substrate occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material, wherein said spacer comprises a thin segment and a thick segment and wherein said thin segment of said spacer is not as thick as said thick segment of said spacer;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

243. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said insulator layer occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaying a portion of said first electrically conducting material;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer and protruding past an end of said spacer, over said first electrically conducting material, so that a gap is formed from an end of the first electrically conducting material and the portion of said second electrically conducting material that protrudes past said end of said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

244. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said substrate occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaying a portion of said first electrically conducting material;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer and protruding past an end of said spacer, over said first electrically conducting material, so that a gap is formed from an end of the first electrically conducting material and the portion of said second electrically conducting material that protrudes past said end of said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic proprty between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

245. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a second electrically conducting material that abuts a side-wall of said spacer facing said first electrically conducting material; and

a first passivation layer that covers (i) the top of said spacer, (ii) a first side of said second electrically conducting material, and (iii) a portion of a second side of said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

246. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of said substrate does not overlap with said second portion of said substrate;

a second electrically conducting material that abuts a side-wall of said spacer facing said first electrically conducting material; and

a first passivation layer that covers (i) the top of said spacer, (ii) a first side of said second electrically conducting material, and (iii) a portion of a second side of said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

247. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, the spacer including a main body and an extended portion, wherein said extended portion of said spacer abuts said first electrically conducting material and wherein said first portion of said insulator layer does not overlap with said second portion of said insulator layer;

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on said main body of said spacer; and

a first passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

248. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device, the spacer including a main body and an extended portion, wherein said extended portion of said spacer abuts said first electrically conducting material and wherein said first portion of said substrate does not overlap with said second portion of said substrate;

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on said main body of said spacer; and

a first passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

249. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising:

a substrate;

a first insulator layer overlaid on said substrate;

a first electrically conducting material overlaid on said insulator;

a passivation layer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material;

a plurality of devices;

wherein each device in said plurality of devices comprises;

a cavity that extends through said passivation layer, said first electrically conducting material, and said first insulator layer;

a second insulator layer in said cavity; and

a second electrically conducting material on said second insulator layer, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

250. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, wherein

said substrate comprises a plurality of upper steps and a plurality of lower steps;

each upper step in the plurality of upper steps is associated with a lower step in the plurality of lower steps; and

for each device in said plurality of devices, a first electrically conducting material in the device overlays an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and a second electrically conducting material in the device overlays the lower step in said plurality of lower steps that is associated with the upper step, wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule is attached to said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule is attached to said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

the method comprising;

(a) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material;

(b) contacting the macromolecule with said analyte such that said analyte binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte; and

(c) detecting a difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

254. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor using a single stranded nucleic acid, wherein

said first portion of said single stranded nucleic is derivatized with a first reactive group that is not masked and wherein said second portion of said single stranded nucleic acid is derivatized with a second reactive group that is masked by a masking group;

the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, wherein each device in said plurality of devices comprises an electrode pair, the method comprising;

(a) exposing said unmasked reactive group to a first electrode in an electrode pair in a device in said plurality of devices in said biosensor under a first set of conditions that allow said single stranded nucleic acid to bind to said first electrode;

(b) incubating said single stranded nucleic acid that is bound to said first electrode with a solution that potentially includes an analyte under a second set of conditions for a period of time;

(c) removing said masking group from said second reactive group, thereby causing said second reactive group to bind to said second electrode in said electrode pair in said device in said plurality of devices; and

(d) detecting any connection between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

255. The method of claim 254 wherein said first reactive group or said second reactive group is sulfur.

256. The method of claim 254 wherein said masking group is a photosensitive masking group and said removing comprises exposing said biosensor to light.

257. The method of claim 254 wherein said masking group is an electrolabile group and said removing comprises exposing said masking group to a voltage.

258. The method of claim 254 wherein said masking group is a chemically sensitive group and said removing comprises exposing said masking group to a chemical.

259. The method of claim 254 wherein said analyte comprises a nucleic acid sequence and said second set of conditions comprises conditions of low stringency.

260. The method of claim 254 wherein said period of time comprises less than one minute.

261. The method of claim 254 wherein said period of time comprises less than 15 minutes.

262. The method of claim 254 wherein said period of time comprises less than one day.

263. The method of claim 254 wherein said period of time comprises more than one hour.

264. The method of claim 254 wherein said method further comprises:

washing said biosensor; and

drying said first electrode and said second electrode prior to said detecting.

265. A biosensor comprising:

a substrate; and

a plurality of devices overlaid on said substrate, wherein (i) each device in said plurality of devices comprises an electrode pair, each said electrode pair comprising a first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material and (ii) each respective said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in each said electrode pair is separated by a distance that is between 60 Angstroms and 500 Angstroms;

wherein at least one device in said plurality of devices occupies {fraction (1/100)} or less of a 100 micron square of surface area on said substrate.

267. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein there are between 500 devices and 1000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

268. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein there are between 1000 devices and 2000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

269. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein there are between 2000 devices and 3000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

270. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein there are between 3000 devices and 4000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

271. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein there are between 4000 devices and 5000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

272. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein there are between 5000 devices and 6000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

273. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein said substrate has a surface area size that is between 1 mm² and 10 mm².

274. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein said substrate has a surface area size that is between 10 mm² and 100 mm².

266-1. The biosensor of claim 275 wherein there are between 2000 devices and 3000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

275. A biosensor comprising:

a substrate;

an insulator layer overlaid on said substrate; and

a plurality of devices overlaid on said substrate, wherein (i) each device in said plurality of devices comprises an electrode pair, each said electrode pair comprising a first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material and (ii) each respective said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in each said electrode pair is separated by a distance between 60 Angstroms and 500 Angstroms;

wherein at least one device in said plurality of devices occupies {fraction (1/100)} or less of a 100 micron square of surface area on said substrate.

1. A biosensor comprising a plurality of devices, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said insulator does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said insulator; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on at least a portion of said spacer.

3. The biosensor of claim 1 or 2 wherein said second electrically conducting material overlaps said first electrically conducting material of a device in said plurality of devices by a distance, thereby forming a cavity.

4. The biosensor of claim 3 wherein said distance is 150 Angstroms or less.

5. The biosensor of claim 3 wherein said distance is 100 Angstroms or less.

6. The biosensor of claim 3 wherein said distance is 50 Angstroms or less.

7. The biosensor of claim 1 or 2 wherein a passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material.

8. The biosensor of claim 7 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

9. The biosensor of claim 1 or 2, wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side-wall of said second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices.

10. The biosensor of claim 1 or 2 wherein

a first passivation layer overlays a portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material, and wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material that is not covered by said first passivation layer and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material.

11. The biosensor of claim 1 or 2 wherein

a first passivation layer overlays a portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second passivation layer overlays a portion said second electrically conducting material, and wherein

a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material that is not covered by said first passivation layer and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a top portion of said second electrically conducting material that is not covered by said second passivation layer.

12. The biosensor of claim 11 wherein said first passivation layer and said second passivation layer each independently comprise silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

13. The biosensor of claims 1 or 2 wherein

a passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material and said spacer comprises a gap exposing a portion of the bottom of said second electrically conducting material, and

a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top portion of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side portion of said second electrically conducting material.

14. The biosensor of claim 13 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

15. The biosensor of claim 1 or 2 wherein a passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material and said spacer comprises a gap exposing a portion of the bottom of said second electrically conducting material.

16. The biosensor of claim 15 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

17. The biosensor of claim 16 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to said portion of the bottom of said second electrically conducting material that is exposed by said gap.

18. The biosensor of claim 16 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to a side-wall of said second electrically conducting material.

19. The biosensor of claim 16 wherein a first portion of a macromolecule binds to a side-wall of said first electrically conducting material and a second portion of said macromolecule binds to said portion of the bottom of said second electrically conducting material that is exposed by said gap.

20. The biosensor of claim 1 wherein a passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material and said spacer comprises a gap exposing a portion of the bottom of said second electrically conducting material and wherein said gap extends to said insulation layer.

21. The biosensor of claim 20 wherein said passivation layer comprises silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxy-nitride, polyamide, oxidized aluminum, or photoresist.

22. The biosensor of claim 1 wherein

a passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material and said spacer comprises a gap exposing a portion of the bottom of said second electrically conducting material, and wherein

said gap extends to said substrate through said insulation layer.

91. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, or 28 wherein a plane including a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a plane comprise a top surface of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance between 60 Angstroms and 200 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

92. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, or 28 wherein a plane that comprises a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a plane that comprises a top surface of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is less than 500 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

93. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, or 28 wherein a plane that comprises a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a plane that comprises a top surface of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is less than 1000 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

94. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, or 28 wherein a plane that comprises a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a plane that comprises a top surface of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is between 300 Angstroms and 400 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

95. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, or 28 wherein a plane that comprises a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a plane that comprises a top surface of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is between 200 Angstroms and 300 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

96. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, or 28 wherein a plane that comprises a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a plane that comprises a top surface of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is less than 300 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

97. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, or 28 wherein a plane that comprises a top surface of said first electrically conducting material and a plane that comprises a top surface of said second electrically conducting material are separated by a distance that is less than 200 Angstroms in a device in said plurality of devices.

101. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said plurality of devices comprises 10 to 250,000 devices.

102. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said plurality of devices comprises 10,000 to 60,000 devices.

103. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said plurality of devices are arranged in an array having at least 200 rows and at least 200 columns on said substrate.

104. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, 71, or 84 wherein said substrate is an insulator.

105. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, 71 or 84 wherein said substrate comprises silicon, silicon oxide, silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, Teflon, alumina, glass, sapphire, a selinide, or polyester.

106. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material each has a resistivity less than 10-6 ohm-meters in a device in said plurality of devices.

107. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material are comprised of the same composition in a device in said plurality of devices.

108. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material are comprised of different compositions in a device in said plurality of devices.

109. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said first electrically conducting material comprises aluminum, nickel, platinum, iron, copper, silver, gold, indium tin oxide, chromium, titanium, zinc, tin, an alloy of aluminum, an alloy of nickel, an alloy of platinum, an alloy of iron, an alloy of copper, an alloy of silver, an alloy of gold, an alloy of chromium, an alloy of titanium, an alloy of zinc or an alloy of tin in a device in said plurality of devices.

110. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said first electrically conducting material comprises a metal carbide, a metal nitride, a metal boride, a conductive oxide, a metal silicide or a metal sulfide in a device in said plurality of devices.

111. The biosensor of claim 1, 23, 27, 45, 54, 60, 70 or 84 wherein said insulator comprises a material having a resistivity greater than 10-1 ohm-meters in a device in said plurality of devices.

112. The biosensor of claim 1, 23, 27, 45, 54, 60, 70 or 84 wherein said insulator comprises TiO, ZrO₂, Al₂O₃, CaF₂, Cr₂O₃, Er₂O₃, HfO₂, MgF₂, MgO, Si₃N₄, SnO₂, SiO₂, quartz, porcelain, tantalum pentoxide, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, ceramic, polystyrene, Teflon, insulating carbon derivatives, glass, clay, polystyrene or a high resistivity plastic in a device in said plurality of devices.

113. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said spacer comprises a metal carbide, a metal nitride, a metal boride, a conductive oxide, a metal silicide or a metal sulfide in a device in said plurality of devices.

114. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein said spacer comprises a material having a resistivity greater than 10⁻

1 ohm-meters in a device in said plurality of devices.

115. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 38, 39, 46, 47, 51, 52, 58, or 59 wherein said spacer comprises TiO, ZrO₂, Al₂O₃, CaF₂, Cr₂O₃, Er₂O₃, HfO₂, MgF₂, MgO, Si₃N₄, SnO₂, SiO₂, quartz, porcelain, tantalum pentoxide, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, ceramic, polystyrene, Teflon, insulating carbon derivatives, glass, clay, polystyrene or a high resistivity plastic in a device in said plurality of devices.

116. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, 71, or 84 wherein a macromolecule is bound to a first electrically conducting material and/or a second electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices and said macromolecule comprises a nucleic acid, a protein, a polypeptide, a peptide, an antibody, a carbohydrate, a polysaccharide, a lipid, a fatty acid or a sugar.

251. The biosensor of claim 1, 23, 27, 45, 54, 60, 70 or 84 wherein a via penetrates said insulator layer and wherein said via is in electrical communication with (i) said second electrically conducting material and (ii) an external electromagenetic source.

252. The biosensor of claim 251 wherein said external electromagnetic source is a voltage source.

253. The biosensor of claim 1, 2, 23, 27, 28, 45, 46, 54, 55, 60, 61, 70, or 71 wherein a via penetrates said substrate and wherein said via is in electrical communication with (i) said first electrically conducting material or said second electrically conducting material and (ii) an external voltage source.

266. The biosensor of claim 265 wherein there are between 100 devices and 500 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

277. The biosensor of claim 275 wherein there are between 3000 devices and 4000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

278. The biosensor of claim 275 wherein there are between 4000 devices and 5000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

279. The biosensor of claim 275 wherein there are between 5000 devices and 6000 devices on a 100 micron square of substrate surface.

280. The biosensor of claim 275 wherein said substrate has a surface area size that is between 10 mm² and 100 mm².

291. The method of claim 116 wherein said macromolecule is modified so that it is more electrically conductive then the corresponding unmodified macromolecule.

292. The method of claim 116 wherein said macromolecule is modified so that it is noninsulative.

293. The method of claim 291 or 292 wherein said macromolecule is modified by oxygen doping or iodine doping.

294. The method of claim 291 or 292 wherein said macromolecule is modified by labeling the macromolecule with a conductive metal.

295. The method of claim 294 wherein said conductive metal is gold, silver, platinum, coppper or tin.

296. The method of claim 294 wherein said labeling is performed using covalent attachment, photoreaction, or intercalation.

281. An apparatus comprising:

a plurality of wells; and

a plurality of arrays, wherein

(a) each array in said plurality of arrays is in a well in said plurality of wells; and

(b) each array comprises a plurality of devices overlaid on a substrate, wherein (i) each device in said plurality of devices comprises an electrode pair, each said electrode pair comprising a first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material and (ii) each respective said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material in each said electrode pair is separated by a distance between 60 Angstroms and 500 Angstroms.

282. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein said plurality of wells comprises 96 wells.

283. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein said plurality of wells comprises 384 wells.

284. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein said plurality of wells comprises 1584 wells.

285. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein there are at least 10,000 devices in an array in said plurality of arrays.

286. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein there are at least 40,000 devices in an array in said plurality of arrays.

287. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein there are at least 60,000 devices in an array in said plurality of arrays.

288. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein there are at least 120,000 devices in an array in said plurality of arrays.

289. The apparatus of claim 281 wherein there are at least 250,000 devices in an array in said plurality of arrays.

297. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

wherein said biosensor comprises a plurality of devices, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said insulator does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said insulator; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on at least a portion of said spacer, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

298. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

wherein said biosensor comprises a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region on said substrate occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region on said substrate that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said substrate does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said substrate; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on at least a portion of said spacer, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

299. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by the device; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said insulator does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said insulator, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

300. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by the device; and

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of the different region on said substrate does not overlap said second portion of the different region on said substrate, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

301. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor;

the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising;

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said insulator layer occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material, wherein said spacer comprises a thin segment and a thick segment and wherein said thin segment of said spacer is not as thick as said thick segment of said spacer;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

302. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said substrate occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material, wherein said spacer comprises a thin segment and a thick segment and wherein said thin segment of said spacer is not as thick as said thick segment of said spacer;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

303. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said insulator layer occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaying a portion of said first electrically conducting material;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer and protruding past an end of said spacer, over said first electrically conducting material, so that a gap is formed from an end of the first electrically conducting material and the portion of said second electrically conducting material that protrudes past said end of said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

304. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on said different region of said substrate occupied by the device;

a spacer overlaying a portion of said first electrically conducting material;

a second electrically conducting material overlaid on said spacer and protruding past an end of said spacer, over said first electrically conducting material, so that a gap is formed from an end of the first electrically conducting material and the portion of said second electrically conducting material that protrudes past said end of said spacer; and

a passivation layer overlaid on said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

305. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a second electrically conducting material that abuts a side-wall of said spacer facing said first electrically conducting material; and

a first passivation layer that covers (i) the top of said spacer, (ii) a first side of said second electrically conducting material, and (iii) a portion of a second side of said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

306. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate occupied by said device, wherein said first portion of said substrate does not overlap with said second portion of said substrate;

a second electrically conducting material that abuts a side-wall of said spacer facing said first electrically conducting material; and

a first passivation layer that covers (i) the top of said spacer, (ii) a first side of said second electrically conducting material, and (iii) a portion of a second side of said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

307. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on an insulator layer, wherein the insulator layer is overlaid on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said insulator layer that is occupied by said device, the spacer including a main body and an extended portion, wherein said extended portion of said spacer abuts said first electrically conducting material and wherein said first portion of said insulator layer does not overlap with said second portion of said insulator layer;

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on said main body of said spacer; and

a first passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

308. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, each device in said plurality of devices occupying a different region on said substrate, each device in said plurality of devices comprising:

a first electrically conducting material, wherein the first electrically conducting material is overlaid on a first portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device;

a spacer overlaid on a second portion of the different region of said substrate that is occupied by said device, the spacer including a main body and an extended portion, wherein said extended portion of said spacer abuts said first electrically conducting material and wherein said first portion of said substrate does not overlap with said second portion of said substrate;

a second electrically conducting material, wherein the second electrically conducting material is overlaid on said main body of said spacer; and

a first passivation layer overlays said second electrically conducting material, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

309. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising:

a substrate;

a first insulator layer overlaid on said substrate;

a first electrically conducting material overlaid on said insulator;

a passivation layer overlaid on said first electrically conducting material;

a plurality of devices;

wherein each device in said plurality of devices comprises;

a cavity that extends through said passivation layer, said first electrically conducting material, and said first insulator layer;

a second insulator layer in said cavity; and

a second electrically conducting material on said second insulator layer, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.

310. A method of detecting an analyte with a biosensor, the biosensor comprising a plurality of devices on a substrate, wherein

said substrate comprises a plurality of upper steps and a plurality of lower steps;

each upper step in the plurality of upper steps is associated with a lower step in the plurality of lower steps; and

for each device in said plurality of devices, a first electrically conducting material in the device overlays an upper step in said plurality of upper steps and a second electrically conducting material in the device overlays the lower step in said plurality of lower steps that is associated with the upper step, the method comprising;

(a) attaching a first portion of a macromolecule to said first electrically conducting material in a device in said plurality of devices;

(b) detecting an electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and a second electrically conducting material in said device;

(c) contacting the macromolecule with a sample potentially comprising said analyte under conditions such that any said analyte in said sample binds to said macromolecule thereby forming a macromolecule/analyte complex that comprises said macromolecule and said analyte;

(d) attaching a second portion of any said macromolecule/analyte complex so formed to said second electrically conducting material in said device; and

(e) detecting any difference in said electromagnetic property between said first electrically conducting material and said second electrically conducting material.